Cities and the industrial revolution

1. Cities and the industrial revolution

2. I. Trends that underpinned* the industrial revolution • The agricultural revolution: • As early as 1650, Holland pioneered* new techniques such as • heavy manuring*. New breeding* techniques were also developed. • These improvements* were soon taken up in England and • elsewhere* in Europe. • Enclosure, which occurred* in the second half of the 18th Century, • was particularly influential in England: large fields were divided • into privately controlled plots* of land. Community access to these • fields was restricted*. • Population growth: France: 18 million inhabitants in 1715 to 26 million in 1789 • Italy: 11 million in 1700 to 16 million in 1770 • England: 5 million in 1700 to 9 million in 1800 • This increase* in population was accompanied by high levels of • urban to rural migration. as early as: dès to underpin: sous-tendre trend : tendance to pioneer: ouvrir la voie manuring: fumage breeding: élevage / reproduction improvement: amélioration elsewhere: ailleurs to occur: avoir lieu plot : parcelle to restrict: restreindre increase: augmentation

3. II. Factors that influenced the spatial organisation • of cities • Population growth • An increase in the production of goods*: This was obviously due to technological progress. But population growth also contributed to boost* goods production by generating more demand for different types of goods. Shifts* in patterns* of employment: Workers who had traditionally been self-employed in rural areas moved to cities: their status changed as they often became employed by large factories*. In England, most of these new industries were located within the city, not in the outskirts*. Infrastructure improvement: • A major expansion of railroads* thanks to the iron industry . • New roads financed through tolls*: Turnpike roads and trusts. • Canals goods : biens to boost: augmenter, renforcer shift: changement, modification pattern: motif, structure factory: usine outskirt: banlieue, périphérie railroad: une voie ferrée toll: un péage

4. III. The industrial city Spatial Structure A closer look at Middlesbrough • Middlesbrough’s population rose from 5,000 in 1840 to 75,500 in 1891. Its iron production was exported all over the world. The river Tees, North of the original city centre, stopped the city from expanding northwards*. Therefore, a new centre had to be planned* further South. A new city hall* (civic centre) was built. In many ways, this new building was erected to reflect local pride*. The Mayor of Middlesbrough is reported to have said « we are proud of our smoke  » (1887). “One of the striking* features* of the development of many town centres in the UK during the 20th century was the substantial* increase in buildings and areas devoted to* municipal administration and culture: the move from single ‘town halls’ to entire ‘civic centres’”. (Larkham, 2004) striking: frappant feature: caractéristique substantial: important devoted to: dédié à northwards : vers le nord iron: acier to stop (sj.) from (vb+ing): empêcher .. de .. northwards : vers le nord planned: aménagé pride: fierté city hall / civic centre: mairie civic centre: mairie courtroom: tribunal library: biblothèque fire engins: camions de pompier

5. Birmingham: The boundary of the built up area in 1828 is shown in red. Black areas are major industrial concentrations. Housing is found all around* the factories, in the central area of the city. Neath: The industrial zone (green) is located along* the river (light blue*). Working class* housing (dark blue*) is on the other side of the railway* (red). Liverpool: Working class housing (green) is located next to* the docks* (blue). Wealthy* people lived peripheral areas. Some people managed to* escape* the central areas, but often lived in a “transition area” (red) until they had enough money to move further out*. boundary : frontière around: autour along: le long de working class: classe ouvrière railway: voie ferrée light / dark : clair / foncé next to: à côté de docks: docks (port) wealthy: aisé to manage to: parvenir à to escape: s’échapper further out: plus loin

6. IV. The consequences of urbanisation The main consequence of urbanisation was overcrowding*. “In the first half of the 19th century, the answer was all too often by subdividing existing property and cramming* more accommodation* into backyards*. Cities became more densely packed*, creating dead-ends* and foul* alleys*, and damp* cellars* offered miserable accommodation. In Liverpool, about a quarter of the population lived in courts* in the early 1840s, and perhaps ten per cent lived in cellars.”(source) overcrowding : surpeuplement to cram: entasser accommodation: logement backyard: arrière-cour packed: bondé dead-end: cul-de-sac foul: immonde alley: allée damp: humide cellar: cave courts: cour narrow: étroit Back to back housing(uncontrolled)

7. Hygiene Because of overcrowding, hygiene problems became widespread*. Of particular concern were the regular cholera outbreaks*. John Snow was the first to identify the link* between water supply and cholera, as shown below. Using maps*, Snow found that the number of deaths was highest around water pumps. widespread : répandu oubreak: éruption link: lien map: carte

8. Poverty In 1902, Charles Booth published a groundbreaking study*. Life and Labour of the People of London threw light on a worrying issue*: over a third of the capital’s population lived in poverty at that time. By pioneering survey* techniques, Charles Booth made a major contribution to social sciences. Similar studies were undertaken* in other cities, particularly the one led* by Seebohm Rowntree in York. His findings* were identical. a groundbreaking study : une étude a worrying issue: un problème inquiétant survey: enquête to undertake: entreprendre to lead / led / led: mener finding: résultat (d’une étude)

9. Urban sprawl* From the second half of the 19th century, public transport networks* were improved and extended. The world’s first underground* opened in London in 1843. This allowed* people who could afford* new suburban housing to move out of cities. This trend obviously* encouraged speculation. Developers* used public transport as an argument in their adverts*. urban sprawl: l’étalement urbain network : réseau underground: (ici) métro to allow: permettre to afford: pouvoir se permettre de obviously: évidemment developer: promoteur advert: publicité

10. IV. The Political context • According to* André Maurois, the industrial revolution paved the • way for* a political revolution. • According to many specialists, the 18th and 19th centuries were • characterised by laissez-faire. • In a paper published in 1969, Gordon E. Cherry identified three • factors that contributed to the development of town planning: • the growth* of towns • the concentration of urban problems, • (3) the uneven* development of industry. • Most importantly, he argued that until the early 1830s, the • situation in most towns could be referred to as “municipal • anarchy”. • Despite this, officials realised* they needed to act* in order to • reverse* these trends. according to: d’après to pave the way for… : ouvrir la voie à… growth: croissance uneven : inégal to realise: se rendre compte to act: agir to reverse: renverser

11. “ Traditional local government bodies were concerned* not so much* with town improvement and the provision of social amenities* as with the management of properties and the regulation of privileges. The inherited system of poor relief had not been designed to cater* for the casualties* of an industrial urban society, while predominant philosophy of individualism generated a deep suspicion of government intervention.” (Gordon E. Cherry) (Poor relief was the system which provided social security in England From the 16th Century until the Welfare State* was established In the early 1940s.) to be concerned with: être concerné / interessé par not so much with…as with… : pas tant par … que par ... to cater for…: pourvoir aux besoins de… casualty: victime Welfare State: Etat Providence

12. “ […] The process of reform is never a one-way* influence of Ideology upon* practice* or the empirical ‘pressure of facts’ upon ideology, but a continuous interaction between the two, in which both are continually modified.” (Perkin, 1977) “Victorian governments, experimenting in new forms of regulation, […] had granted* to officials […] very general and loosely defined* authorities to make laws* or to judge cases and had permitted officials to develop and apply* their own standards* and interpretations of the public interest* […].” Numerous*ad hoc bodies* were set up in the 19th century to tackle* specific problems. During the 19th century, some services (water & electricity) were ‘nationalised’ and their management* was passed onto local authorities* (municipal ownership*) one-way: à sens unique upon: sur practice (noun): pratique to grant: accorder loosely defined: vaguement défini law: loi to apply: appliquer standard: norme numerous: de nombreux a body: (ici) une organisation to tackle: s’attaquer à (un pbm) management: gestion local authority: municipalité ownership: propriété

13. V. Early legislation Housing / living conditions in Victorian* cities have generated a huge* amount* of literature in the past couple of centuries*. The works of Charles Dickens are probably the most famous* ones. In England, the first pieces of legislation dealing with cities focused* on housing* and public health*. Victorian (adj.) : de la période Victorienne (1837-1901) huge: énorme amount: quantité century: siècle famous: célèbre to focus (on): focaliser housing: logement public health: santé publique Steps 2 and 3:- Yard width: at least 15 feet for 8 houses, at least 25 feet for 18 houses- Yard minimum area: 150 square feet Step 4:- standards were raised further and included minimum widths for back lanes Step 1:- Entrance should be minimum 5 feet- Yard’s width should be at least 15 feet

14. VI. Utopian experiments Several industrialists* attempted at* creating successful new communities* from the late 1800s. Robert Owen was the first person to implement such a project. The village he built in New Lanark provided* quality housing for his workers. New community: a new settlement, a new village or town industrialist : industriel (nom) to attempt at: tenter de to provide: fournir, pourvoir

15. A number of other projects followed*: Port Sunlight, built by the Lever family. The plan is influenced by continental projects: it features* wide* boulevards lined with* chestnut trees*. Houses are built as cottages, in short rows* (terraces*) or as semi- detached*. Density did not exceed 20 dwellings per hectare whereas* in neighbouring* areas, it could reach* 50 dpa. to follow: suivre to feature : (ici) être doté de wide: large row: rangée terrace: rangée de maison (terraced housing) semi-detached house: maison mitoyenne whereas: tandis que neighbourhing: avoisinant to reach: atteindre Saltaire, built by Sir Titus Salt (1851-1876)

16. Garden Cities: The legacy* of Ebenezer Howard Howard is often referred to as a town planner*. In fact, he was a shorthand writer*. His book, To-Morrow: a peaceful path to real reform, was originally Published in 1898. It was then published a second time as Garden Cities of To-Morrow in 1902. Today, Garden-cities are primarily* associated with a certain type of planning, architecture and design. At the time when they were devised* however, they reflected a wider* project that also took governance* into account*. legacy : héritage town planner: urbaniste shorthand writer: sténographe primarily: principalement devised: inventé, imaginé wider: plus large governance: gouvernance to take … into account: prendre … en compte

17. Howard’s project is summed up* in his famous “three magnets*” diagram. to sum up : résumer magnet: aimant slum: taudis fog: brouillard drought: sécheresse drainage: assèchement

18. The land used to build the first Garden Cities was purchased* at agricultural price – in other words, at a very low price. The whole* city was owned* by the municipality: one of the main aspects of Garden Cities is that they aimed at* avoiding* the problems associated with private property. Residents would pay rents* to the municipality rather than to private landlords*. The money raised through rents was reinvested to improve infrastructure and community facilities*. legacy : héritage town planner: urbaniste shorthand writer: sténographe primarily: principalement devised: inventé, imaginé wider: plus large governance: gouvernance to take … into account: prendre … en compte

19. According to Howard, the population of Garden Cities should not exceed 30.000 inhabitants. His project is based on polycentricity. His cities are self-sufficient* (they provide a balance* of homes and jobs) and are connected by public transport. In theory, Howard’s Social City could grow indefinitely*. self sufficient: auto-suffisante balance: équilibre indefinitely: indéfiniment

20. Howard had no architecture skills*: the plans for his Garden Cities were drawn by Raymond Unwin and Barry Parker who were both architects. The diagram below, published in Howard’s book, is only a “suggested plan” for a ward*. skill: compétence ward: quartier

21. Raymond Unwin published Nothing gained by overcrowding in • This book proved that it is possible to improve the layout* of • houses without having to decrease* densities. Unwin’s plan (right) • only used 17% of the land for roads instead of* the usual* 40% in • traditional plans (left). • His other main contribution to planning practice was the creation • of the “close”. This model has been widely used since, particularly • in the 1930s when vast council housing estates* were built. layout: disposition decrease: réduire usual: habituel council housing estate: ensemble de logements sociaux