The Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment (1550 – 1789)

1. The Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment(1550 – 1789) Chapter Six

2. Enlightenment and Revolution 1550 – 1789 Overview Starting in the 1500s, European thinkers overturned old ideas about the physical world with a new approach to science. Thinkers of the Enlightenment hoped to use reason to make a better society in which people were free. Enlightenment ideas spread throughout Europe. They had a profound effect in North America, forming the basis of the new government of the United States.

3. Chapters in Brief - Questions • Contrast how people in the Middle Ages and people in the scientific revolution looked at the physical world. (Middle Ages vs. Scientific Revolution) • How is the scientific revolution connected to the Enlightenment? • What were three major ideas of the Enlightenment? • What factors led to the spread of the Enlightenment? • How did the government of the United States reflect Enlightenment ideas?

4. Chapters in Brief - Answers • Contrast how people in the Middle Ages and people in the scientific revolution looked at the physical world. Middle Ages: scholars based their ideas on what had been written by ancient writers and what was in the Bible Scientific Revolution: scholars based their ideas on what they had observed firsthand and a willingness to question old beliefs

5. Chapters in Brief - Answers 2. How is the scientific revolution connected to the Enlightenment? > thought the advances in science were due to the use of reason; they hoped to apply reason to social and political issues – rather than the description of nature 3. What were three major ideas of the Enlightenment? a. rights to life, liberty, and property b. that reason can gain people freedom c. that government power should be separate and balanced d. trials should be fair e. all men should have equal rights

6. Chapters in Brief - Answers 4. What factors led to the spread of the Enlightenment? > the discussions held in fashionable French homes and publication of the Encyclopedia 5. How did the government of the United States reflect Enlightenment ideas? > Montesquieu – the Constitution of the United States put in effect the separation of powers into three branches of government; each branch was able to prevent other branches from abusing their power > Locke – it put power in the hands of the people

7. Chapters in Brief - Answers 5. How did the government of the United States reflect Enlightenment ideas? (continued) > Voltaire – it protected the rights of people to free speech and freedom of religion > Beccaria – it set up a fair system of justice > many of these rights were ensured in a set of additions to the Constitution called the Bill of Rights

8. Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment Objective Analyze event that led Enlightenment scientists and thinkers to question old ideas and to revolutionize art, religion, government, and society

9. The Scientific Revolution Chapter Six – Section One

10. The Scientific Revolution During the Middle Ages, few scholars questioned ideas that had always been accepted. Europeans based ideas about the physical world on what ancient Greeks and Romans believed or what was said in the Bible. Therefore, people still thought that the earth was the center of the universe. To them, the sun, moon, other planets, and stars moved around it. In the mid-1500s, however, attitudes changed. Scholars now started a scientific revolution drawn from a spirit of curiosity. One factor was the new focus on careful observation. Another was the willingness to question old beliefs. European explorations were a third factor. When they reached new lands,

11. The Scientific Revolution Europeans saw new planets and animals never seen by ancient writers. These discoveries led to the opening of new courses of study in universities. The first challenge came in astronomy. In the early 1500s, Nicolaus Copernicus studied the stars and planets for many years. He concluded that the earth, like the other planets, revolved around the sun, and the moon revolved around the earth. Fearing attack, he did not publish his findings until just before his death. In the early 1600s, Johannes Kepler used mathematics to confirm Copernicus’s basic idea.

12. The Scientific Revolution An Italian scientist – Galileo Galilei – made several discoveries that undercut the ancient ideas. He made one of the first telescopes and used it to study the planets. He found that Jupiter had moons, the sun had spots, and earth’s moon was rough. These statements went against church teaching, and Galileo was forced to deny their truth. Still, his ideas spread. Interest in science led to a new approach, the scientific method. With this method, scientists ask a question based on something they have seen in the physical world. They form a hypothesis, or an attempt to answer the question. Then they test the hypothesis by making experiments or checking other facts. Finally, they

13. The Scientific Revolution Changed the hypothesis if needed. The English writer Francis Bacon helped foster this new approach to knowledge by telling scientists they should base their ideas on what they can see and test in the world. The French mathematician Rene Descartes also had great influence. His thinking was based on logic and mathematics. In the mid-1600s, the English scientist Isaac Newton described the law of gravity. Using mathematics, Newton showed that the same force ruled the motion of planets and the action of bodies on the earth.

14. The Scientific Revolution Scientists made new tools to study the world around them. One invented a microscope to study creatures too small for the naked eye to see. Others invented tools for understanding weather. Doctors also made advances. One made drawings that showed the different parts of the human body. Another learned how the heart pumped blood through the body. In the late 1700s, Edward Jenner first used the process called vaccination to prevent disease. By giving a person the germs from a cattle disease called cowpox, he helped the person avoid getting the more serious human disease of small pox. Scientists made advances in chemistry as well. One challenged the old idea that things were made of only four elements – earth, air, fire, and water. He and other scientists were able to separate oxygen from air.

15. The Scientific Revolution • 1300 – 1600 was a time of profound change in the European world: • Renaissance • rebirth of learning/inspired curiosity/questioned ideas • Reformation • religious movement/challenge of accepting ways of thinking about God and salvation • New way of thinking in the mid-1500s = Scientific Revolution Scientific Revolution: the study of the natural world began to be characterized by careful observation and the questioning of accepted beliefs

16. Old Science Relied on ancient authorities, church teaching, common sense, and reasoning to explain the physical world New Science Used observation, experimentation, and scientific reasoning to gather knowledge and draw conclusions about the physical world Discoveries made during Exploration opened up the idea that there were new ideas to be found Invention of Printing Press spread challenging ideas Causes of the Scientific Revolution New observations during this time did not match ancient beliefs regarding astronomy and mathematics Navigational advances to help exploration encouraged new scientific research Reached the limit of classical knowledge but still wanted to know more

17. The Roots of Modern Science • Middle Ages – scholars believed the earth was an immovable object located at the center of the universe • Science & Technology from: • Ancient Egypt – pyramids, mathematics • China – movable type, paper, astronomy • Islam – medicine, ancient Greek texts, astronomy, mathematics • Medieval Europe – alchemy, herbalists, cathedrals

18. The Medieval View • according to that belief, the moon, the sun, and the planets all moved perfectly circular paths around the earth Geocentric Theory

19. Medieval Representation of Ptolemaic Universe REASSURANCE Divine power would triumph over corruption and decay of earthly things and lift the soul to an afterlife in heaven COMFORTIndividual could locate God Soul’s destination would be above or below STABILITY Earth was at center Mankind important in God’s plan

20. Scientific Thought in 1500 • The Aristotelian / Ptolemaic Universe • Geocentric Theory (Aristotle and Ptolemy) • idea came from Aristotle (philosopher) - 4th century B.C. • Ptolemy (astronomer) expanded the theory – 2nd century A.D.

21. Scientific Thought in 1500 • The Aristotelian / Ptolemaic Universe • 10 separate, transparent, crystal spheres • first 8 held the moon, sun, planets, stars • 2 added during Middle Age • Heaven lay beyond the 10th sphere • Angels kept the spheres moving • Sub-lunar world • earth, water; fire, air • uniform force moved objects until something stopped it

22. Scientific Thought in 1500 • the Church invested greatly in this world-view • Scientific Revolution was based on careful observation and a willingness to question accepted beliefs ** The view of the world immediately prior to the Scientific Revolution was that the sun moved around the earth **

23. Three Guiding Principles Aristotle’s Prime Mover Earth is at the center of the Universe Celestial objects are made from perfect material and cannot change their properties (e.g., their brightness) All motion in the heavens is uniform circular motion

24. The Geocentric (Ptolemaic) Universe

25. A Revolutionary Model of the Universe • an early challenge to accepted scientific thinking came in the field of astronomy • scholars began to question the geocentric theory • Geocentric theory did not accurately explain the movements of the sun, moon, and planets

26. Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) • Polish monk / astronomer • observed patterns of star and planet movement • Heliocentric Theory: sun-centered • called into question the literal truth of the Scriptures • Copernicus waited until he was near death to publish his findings • On the Revolutions of Celestial Bodies (1543)

27. The Heliocentric (Copernican) Universe

28. Copernicus’ Universe

30. Since the orbits of the planets are not circles but ellipses, Copernicus could not explain all the details of planetary motion without epicycles

31. A Danish nobleman, Tycho Brahe (1546-1601), made important contributions: an astronomical observatory, precise instruments, extensive data on Mars (Kepler used to prove that the orbit of Mars was not a circle but an ellipse).

32. Johannes Kepler (1571-1630), a German who went to Prague to become Brahe's assistant, realized that the orbits of the planets were not circles but ellipses and developed three laws to describe the phenomenon he observed.

33. Kepler’s First Law: The orbits of the planets are ellipses, with the Sun at one focus of the ellipse.

34. Kepler’s Second Law: The line joining the planet to the Sun sweeps out equal areas in equal times as the planet travels around the ellipse

35. Kepler’s Third Law: The ratio of the squares of the revolutionary periods for two planets is equal to the ratio of the cubes of their semi major axes

36. HTML Version of Kepler’s Law

37. Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) • Italian scientist • improved the telescope • made observations that proved the Copernican view of the universe • Moon • Planets • Stars • Sunspots • 1632 he published Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems – supported the Copernican theory • 1633 – summoned by the pope - church forced Galileo to recant - placed under house arrest until his death in 1642

38. Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina of Tuscany (1615) • written to address the conflict between the Bible and heliocentric theory • argued that the Bible must be interpreted in light of scientific knowledge • argued for a non-literal interpretation of the Bible • Galileo declared the Bible teaches how to go to heaven, not how the heavens go • the letter began Galileo’s troubles with the Catholic Church

39. Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) proved the Copernican theory with his telescope, challenged Aristotle's universe and its theological-philosophical worldview, and laid the foundations for dynamics (how objects move on the earth) and gravity.

40. Sunspots He observed four points of light that changed their positions around the planet Jupiter and concluded that they were moons circling the planet as it moved around its orbit. . Galileo observed sunspots that moved, indicating that the Sun was rotating on an axis and that it was not made from a perfect, unchanging substance.

41. Galileo used his telescope to show that Venus went through a complete set of phases, just like the Moon. This observation confirmed the Copernican system and proved that the Ptolemaic system was incorrect.

42. Galileo's challenge of the Church's authority got him into deep trouble with the Inquisition. Late in his life, he was forced to recant his Copernican views publicly.

43. Galileo • http://www.bing.com/videos/search?q=Galileo+Animated+hero+classic+&qs=n&form=QBVR&pq=galileo+animated+hero+classic+&sc=0-0&sp=-1&sk=#view=detail&mid=F32D5B89564ADB7CDFBFF32D5B89564ADB7CDFBF (27 minutes)

44. Scientific Method • Deductive Reasoning (Plato)= Logic • Empiricism (Aristotle) = experience • Scientific Method (Rene Descartes)=

46. Francis Bacon • English statesman and writer • believed that by better understanding the world, scientists would generate practical knowledge would improve people’s lives

47. Francis Bacon (continued) Empiricism: the belief that experience is the only true source of knowledge • helped lead the development of the Scientific Method

48. René Descartes (1596-1650) • French mathematician and philosopher • developed analytical geometry which linked algebra and geometry • a transitional figure between the medieval past and modern science • promoter of deductive reasoning, predicting particular results from general principles

49. René Descartes(continued) Discourse on Method (1637) • Descartes wished to develop a method that could be used to yield scientific truth • argued that abstract reasoning and math were a more reliable path to truth; our senses could deceive us • Cogito ergo sum (“I think, therefore I am”)

50. Isaac Newton • English scientist • same force ruled motion of the planets and all matter on earth and in space • key idea that linked motion in the heavens with motion on the earth was the law of universal gravitation • “Law of Gravity” • 1687 - wrote one of the most important scientific books The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy