PSYCH 1000 Introduction to Developmental, Social and Abnormal Psychology

1. PSYCH 1000Introduction to Developmental, Social and Abnormal Psychology Lecturer: Doneisha Burke, MSc.

2. Common vs. Uncommon sense According to psychologist Lee Ross we trust our common sense largely because we are prone to Na�ve realism, i.e the belief that we see the world precisely as it is. Our tendencies to na�ve realism can lead us to draw erroneous conclusions about human nature NB our common sense isn�t always wrong as our intuitions come in very handy in many situations and often guides us to the truth.

3. Psychology as a Science How can we distinguish psychological fact from psychological fiction? The scientific method- set of tools designed to help us avoid being tricked by our own biases e.g. confirmation bias Scientific skepticism It is an approach of evaluating all claims with an open mind but insisting on persuasive evidence before accepting them. NB: Avoid Pathological skepticism i.e. tendency to dismiss claims that contradict our beliefs Maintaining a balance is key i.e. Oberg�s Dictum- we should keep our minds open but not open that we believe virtually everything. The Role of Authority One should exercise an unwillingness to accept claims solely on the basis that it was provided by an authority figure.

4. Psychology as a Science Basic Principles of Critical Thinking Critical thinking- set of skills for evaluating all claims in an open minded and careful fashion. It helps us to overcome confirmation bias for example. When evaluating all psychological claims the following 6 critical thinking principles should be considered.

5. Psychology as a Science: Basic Principles of Critical Thinking

6. Psychology and Research Methods Heuristics and Cognitive Biases Heuristics- mental shortcuts/rules of thumb that help us streamline our thinking and make sense of the world. Be warned! Types of heuristics Representativeness- � like goes with like� Heuristic that involves judging the probability of an event by its superficial similarity to a prototype Availability- �off the top of my head� Heuristic that involves estimating the likelihood of an occurrence based on the ease with which it comes to our mind.

7. Psychology and Research Methods Cognitive Biases Systematic errors in thinking Types of Biases Hindsight bias- � I knew it all along�; tendency to overestimate how well we could have successfully forecasted known outcomes. Confirmation- �seek and ye shall find�; tendency to seek out information that confirms our hypotheses while neglecting or distorting evidence that contradicts them. Overconfidence- tendency to overestimate our ability to make accurate predictions.

8. THEORY VS. HYPOTHESIS What is a theory? The systematic explanation of a phenomenon. A theory is a general principle or a collection of interrelated general principles that is put forward as an explanation of a set of known facts and empirical findings. A common misconception is that a theory explains �one� specific event. Or that it is an educated guess. What is a hypothesis? A hypothesis is any statement, proposition or assumption that serves as a tentative explanation of certain facts.

9. Psychology and Research Methods: How to test a Hypothesis OBSERVATIONAL RESEARCH Participant observation here the researcher actually gets involved in the scene being observed, and exercises a deliberate influence on the behaviour. Naturalistic Observation Watching behaviour in real world settings Advantages and disadvantages of each

10. Psychology and Research Methods: How to test a Hypothesis ARCHIVAL RESEARCH This method of data collection involves a systematic search of record that have been collected for other purposes. Archival research is a Good starting point for research Good way to generate research hypotheses and A good way to test predictions in times and places which are otherwise inaccessible

11. Psychology and Research Methods: How to test a Hypothesis Case Studies Research design that examines one person or a small number of people in depth, often over an extended period of time. Advantages vs. disadvantages

12. Psychology and Research Methods: How to test a Hypothesis Survey Method Surveys- a systematic way of asking people about a topic- getting people to indicate what they are thinking or feeling. There are two kinds of surveys; Interviews- face-to- face interaction Questionnaires- written forms on which respondents indicate their opinions or rate their perceptions of an issue on a scale Surveys allow for representative samples and a multivariate approach but, questions must be carefully phrased as well as ensuring the accuracy of subjects� responses Halo effect

13. Psychology and Research Methods: How to test a Hypothesis Correlational designs Research design that examines the extent to which 2 variables( anything that can take on different values/vary) are associated. The differences that exist among participants are measured. Illusory correlation- perception of a statistical association between 2 variables where none exists. NB CORRELATION DOES NOT = CAUSATION Advantages vs. disadvantages

14. Psychology and Research Methods: How to test a Hypothesis It involves careful observation and statistical analyses to test correlation. You get what is called a correlation coefficient � which is indicated by r. Correlations range from �1.00 - + 1.00 (represents the strength/magnitude of the correlation) � the closer they are to 1, regardless of � or + the stronger the correlation. + means that the variables go together 0 means that the variable don�t go together - means the variable go in opposite direction

15. Psychology and Research Methods: How to test a Hypothesis Experimental designs Research characterized by random assignment of participants to conditions and manipulation of an independent variable. The differences in experiments are created. They allow one to make cause-and-effect inferences. An experiment consists of 2 essential ingredients: Random assignment The experiment randomly sorts participants into 1 of 2 groups, i.e. experimental and control group Manipulation of I.V. I.V- variable manipulated by the experimenter D.V. variable measured by the experimenter to see whether the manipulation has had an effect

16. Psychology and Research Methods: How to test a Hypothesis Experimental Design NB its important that any change in the D.V is due to manipulation of the I.V. if that is not the case then a confounding variable/confound is present. Confound- any difference between the experimental and control groups other than the I.V. The 2 essential ingredients of experiments is what allows for cause-and-effect relations to be determined from a study provided all was done correctly. Lilienfeld Pg 79

17. Psychology and Research Methods: How to test a Hypothesis Experimental design Pitfalls The Placebo Effect- improvement resulting from the mere expectation of improvement. The Nocebo Effect- harm resulting from the mere expectation of harm The Experimenter Expectancy/Rosenthal Effect- phenomenon in which researchers hypotheses lead them to unintentionally bias the outcome of a study. To avoid this experiments when possible should be conducted in a Double Blind fashion Double blind- when neither researchers nor participants are aware of who�s in the experimental or control group

18. Psychology and Research Methods: How to test a Hypothesis Experimental design Pitfalls Hawthorne Effect- phenomenon in which participants knowledge that they are being studied can affect their behaviour. Demand characteristics- participants pick up cues from the experiment that help them guess the hypotheses.

19. Psychology and Research Methods: How to test a Hypothesis Random Selection Procedure that ensures every person in a population has an equal chance of being chosen to participate. Very crucial to generalizability and preventing misleading conclusions, e.g. Hite Report (1987) N.B. RANDOM SELECTION AND RANDOM ASSIGNMENT ARE NOT THE SAME THING.

20. Psychology and Research Methods: Evaluating Measures When evaluating results from any measure/D.V. the following 2 questions are a must. Is it reliable? The extent to which a measure consistently yields the same results over time. Is it valid? Extent to which a measure assesses what it purports to measure. Reliability is necessary for validity i.e. we need to measure something consistently before we can measure it well; however it isn�t enough for validity (DIMWITpg 86 Lilienfeld).

21. Psychology and Research Methods: Ethical Issues The Tuskegee Study Informed consent Involves informing research participants of what is involved in a study before asking them to participate Deception Involves the deliberates misleading of participants in order to preserve the integrity of a study (e.g. Milgram shock experiments) Debriefing Process in which researchers inform the participants about what the research was about

22. Psychology and Research Methods: Ethical Issues Animal Research Invasive research About 7%-8% of published research in psychology relies on animals. It is very important to weigh carefully the potential scientific benefits of their inquiries against the cost in death and suffering they produce.