CMNS 446 Science and Technology Studies

1. CMNS 446Science and Technology Studies J. Adam Holbrook, P.Eng., Centre for Policy Research on Science and Technology, Simon Fraser University Vancouver, BC

2. What is the question? • Does technology shape society? or Does society shape technology? Or both? • Do technologies develop to an optimal conclusion? • What are the consequences of path dependency? The link to biology (and Darwin)

3. Knowledge flows Knowledge is a unique commodity in that while it can be created, it cannot be destroyed. Similarly it can be transferred, but the source retains all of the knowledge it transfers to the recipient. Knowledge can flow from one institution to another, either through people, or through transfers of codified knowledge that permit the creation of knowledge in the recipient institution. A national system of innovation describes the relationships among institutions, both public and private. These relationships are usually through financial flows or movements of people In federal states the national system of innovation is the sum of several regional systems. The technological future appears to depend more on social than on technological processes

4. Objectives for Innovation Policy To identify who are the innovators and what are the innovations To differentiate between inventors, innovators and implementers To establish public sector infrastructure to support innovation

5. What is innovation? Two views – a social view and an economic view The social view looks at how innovation are adopted and adapted. The “S” curve; early adopters and late adopters. “Diffusion of Innovation” by Everett M. Rogers The economic view: Josef Schumpeter: “The Theory of Economic Development” Five forms of innovation: new products, new processes, new markets, new resources , new organizations Shumpeterian innovation may be the limiting case of the innovation “S” curve

6. A definition of technological innovation “Technological Product and Process (TPP) Innovations comprise implemented technologically new products and processes and significant technological improvements in products and processes. A TPP innovation has been implemented if it has been introduced on the market (product innovation) or used within a production process (process innovation)” (OECD, Oslo Manual, sec. 15.)

7. The growth of an innovation

8. Innovation - new organisation -new markets -new resources Science &Tech - new prod.&processes. R&D

9. Research and development as an indicator of innovation Quantitative measures of innovation are difficult. There is no widely accepted quantitative measure of innovation R&D activities are widely regarded as an indicator of innovative activities. The presence of R&D indicates innovation in an economy, but the lack of it does not imply the economy is not innovative. This is particularly important in emerging economies. The OECD developed this principle in the 1960s Thus the measurement of R&D activities should follow the OECD Frascati standard simply for consistency At the same time corroborative measures of innovation are necessary.

10. Research and development a definition Research and experimental development comprise creative work undertaken on a systematic basis in order to increase the stock of knowledge, including knowledge of man, culture and society, and the use of this stock of knowledge to devise new applications. R&D is a term covering three activities : basic research, applied research and experimental development. The basic criterion for distinguishing R&D from related activities is the presence in R&D of an appreciable element of novelty and the resolution of scientific and/or technological uncertainty.

11. S&T - a definition In 1978 UNESCO stated in its “Recommendations Concerning the International Standardization of Statistics on Science and Technology” that scientific and technical activities comprise: “...systematic activities which are closely concerned with the generation, advancement, dissemination and application of scientific and technical knowledge in all fields of science and technology. These include such activities as R&D, scientific and technical education and training (STET) and scientific and technological services (STS)” In general S&T activities are the sum of: research and development scientific and technological education and training scientific and technological services

12. What is a general purpose technology? • A GPT is a single generic technology, recognizable as such over its whole lifetime, that initially has: - much scope for improvement, - eventually becomes widely used, - has many uses, and, - has many spillover effects. • What a GPT is not: does not have a single manifestation, neither completely exogenous nor endogenous. Development is usually endogenous, nor is it necessarily radical • General purpose principles : fire, levers

13. Analysis of GPTs – example: domestication of plants (and animals) • Effect on technologies: new technologies from sedentary living: weaving, pottery, • Effect on facilitating structures - social effects: villages, housing (structures) specialized occupations • Effect on policy structure - political: hierarchy of decision makers, taxation to support non-productive people • Effect on economic performance: increased income, secure food supplies, downside - disease

14. Early GPTs, according to Lipsey • Domestication of plants : 9000 – 8000 BC • Domestication of animals : 8500 – 7500 BC • Smelting of ore : 8000 – 7000 BC • Wheel : 4000 – 3000 BC • Writing : 3400 – 3200 BC • Bronze : 2800 BC • Iron : 1200 BC

15. GPTs for gradual industrialization • Waterwheel: early medieval period • Three-masted ship : 15th century • Printing : 16th century • Steam engine : late 18th century • Factory system : late 18th century • Railway : mid 19th century • Iron steamship : mid 19th century • Internal combustion engine : mid 19th century • Electrical dynamo : mid 19th century

16. Modern GPTs – all 20th century • Motor vehicles • Airplanes • Mass production, continuous process factory • Computer • Lean production • Internet • Biotechnology • Nanotechnology (?)

17. Classes of GPTs • Material technologies : domestication of plants & animals, bronze, iron, biotech • Power : domesticated animals, waterwheel, steam engine, IC engine, dynamo • ICTs : writing, printing, computers, Internet • Tools : wheel • Transportation : domesticated animals, 3-masted ship, railway, iron steamship • Organization : factory, mass production, lean production

18. Which GPTs did Lipsey leave out and why? • Projectiles: spears, arrows (and bows)? • Boats: rafts, rowing and sailing? • Cutting tools? • Spinning and weaving ? • Money and credit • Steel making ? • Rockets and satellites ? • Electronic components: vacuum tubes, transistors, IC circuits • Wired telecommunications telegraph, telephone, TV ? • Wireless telecomms? • Atomic power?

19. Checklists • A GPT initially has: much scope for improvement, eventually becomes widely used, has many uses, and has many spillover effects • Effects of GPTs: on technology, on facilitating structures, policy structures, and on economic performance