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Reading the Signs of the Body

Reading the Signs of the Body. in the Era of Industrial Capitalism. Industrial Revolution in UK. 1700-1860 in England Agriculture to Industrial Economy Some Changes World is much more competitive Urbanization : by 1850 half of England lived in cities (often slums)

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Reading the Signs of the Body

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  1. Reading the Signs of the Body in the Era of Industrial Capitalism

  2. Industrial Revolution in UK • 1700-1860 in England • Agriculture to Industrial Economy • Some Changes • World is much more competitive • Urbanization: by 1850 half of England lived in cities (often slums) • Women lost home-based weaving jobs • Meritocracy: rewards go to best & most capable (not just based on birth) • Need to understand self & others

  3. Our Response to Faces? A C B

  4. Physiognomy = understanding human character traits by the outward physical traits of the body, particularly the face and head • Ancient physiognomy argued by Aristotle: people’s faces suggest the personality of animals they look like Giambattista della Porta: De humana physiognomonia libri IIII

  5. Johann Caspar Lavater (1741-1801) • Argued that trained observers could describe a person’s character on the basis of their appearance • Published 1775-1778 in 4 vols. • Remained in print in many languages till 20th century • Influenced novelists & general population • Illustrations suggested to readers insights into family and neighbors

  6. Plates I & II

  7. Examples of Lavater’s Interpretation The Forehead The Mouth & Lips

  8. Phrenology • Franz Joseph Gall (1758-1828) founds “phrenology” • Outer contours of skull = shape of brain beneath (Wrong) • Brain uses limited number of faculties or functions (Wrong) • Functions are located in different place in the brain (Right) • Claims 27 specific faculties (benevolence, mirthfulness, firmness, hope, etc.) after looking at small numbers of subjects • Tended to dismiss discrepancies among research subjects http://www.epub.org.br/cm/n01/frenolog/gall.gif

  9. Popularizing Phrenology • Johann Caspar Spurzheim (1776-1832)popularized phrenology after 1815 & split with Gall • He added faculties (N = 37) to Gall’s list & split them between affective & intellectual qualities • Traveled in Europe, UK, & US • Influenced George Combe, an Edinburgh lawyer (see next slide) who becomes advocate for phrenological science Spurzheim (1834)

  10. George Combe (1788-1858) • Elements of Phrenology (1824) • The Constitution of Man (1828) links phrenology to educational reform (sold 350,000 copies by 1900) • Begins Phrenological Journal after establishing a scientific society in Edinburgh in 1820 • Societies established all over the United Kingdom with meetings open to the public

  11. Phrenology in the United States • Appeared in US by 1820 (and strengthened after Spurzheim visited in 1832) • Fowler brothers – Orson (1809-1887) & Lorenzo (1811-1896) – opened phrenology clinics in NYC, Boston, & Philadelphia in 1830s. They also created a publishing company for phrenological materials • American Phrenological Journal published 1838 into the early 1900s. • Focus was practical (see Sokol, 2001). Using a “fee for service model” phrenologists provided: • Vocational guidance • Family or marriage counseling • Child rearing

  12. Chart: “Signs of Character” (1847) benevolence self-esteem cautiousness destructivenss secretiveness amativeness

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