THE TRANSFORMATION OF THE WEST, 1450 - 1750

1. THE TRANSFORMATION OF THE WEST, 1450 - 1750 An Era of Change

2. PROTESTANT REFORMATION • Precursors to Luther • Jan Hus in Holy Roman Empire and Wycliffe in England • Both attacked aspects of church corruption, wealth, practices • Both condemned by Church • Hus executed, but Wycliffe protected by King of England • Wycliffe had Bible translated into English • Martin Luther (1483-1546) • Attacked the sale of indulgences, 1517 • Attacked corruption in Catholic Church; called for reform • Argument reproduced with printing presses and widely read • Enthusiastic response from lay Christians, princes, many cities • By mid-16th century, half Germans adopted Lutheranism • Reform spread outside Germany • Protestant movements popular in Swiss cities, Netherlands • Scandinavian kings like movement as it removes Church as a rival • English Reformation sparked by King Henry VIII's desire for divorce • John Calvin, French convert to Protestantism • Organized model Protestant community in Geneva in the 1530s • Calvinist missionaries were successful in France • Institutes of the Christian Religion-laid out Protestantism views • Zwingli leads Calvinist like reformation in Switzerland • John Know leads Presbyterian movement in Scotland • Martin Bucer writes pamphlets, lead to rise of Puritan movement in England

3. CATHOLIC REFORMATION • Church reaction to Luther, Protestants • Charles V, Church condemn, excommunicate Luther • King Henry VIII condemns Luther until goes Protestant • Inquisition unleashed against Protestants by Fernando and Isabel • The Council of Trent, 1545-1563 • Directed Catholic Reformation • Attacked corruption • Reaffirmed tradition, Bible as co-equal • The Society of Jesus (Jesuits) • Founded 1540 by Ignatius Loyola • High standards in education • Combat Protestants with logic, faith, hard work • Saved S. Germany, E. Europe from Protestants • Became confessors, advisors to kings

4. Henry VIII I am, I am • Henry VIII Catherine of Aragon((annulled after over 20 yrs) Mary I • Anne Boleyn(Beheaded) Elizabeth I • Jane Seymour(died in childbirth) Edward VI • Anne of Cleaves(annulled) • Catherine Howard(beheaded) • Katherine Parr(widowed) • Age of marriage Henry 18 Catherine of A. 24 • Henry 42 Anne Boleyn 33 • Henry 45 Jane Seymour 25 • Henry 49 Anne of Cleaves 25 • Henry 50 Catherine Howard 19 • Henry 52 Catherine Parr 31 • Worldwide missionaries

5. RELIGIOUS CONFLICT • Religious wars • Between Protestants, Catholics during 16TH century • Wars as much social, political as religious • Neither side is innocent of conflict • Civil war in France • Between Huguenots (French Calvinists), Catholic League • Monarchy often a pawn of both sides and nobles • Lasted thirty-six years (1562-1598) • Ended with new King and Edict of Nantes (rights to Huguenots) • Spanish Armada • War between Catholic Spain (Phillip II), Protestant England (Elizabeth I), 1588 • Spill over from conflict in the Netherlands • Question of heir to English throne: Catholic Scottish Queen or Protestant Elizabeth • Protestant provinces of the Netherlands revolted against rule of Catholic Spain • Originally began as a revolt of all Netherlands against Spain • Eventually split country into Catholic south (Belgium) and Protestant north (Holland) • The Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) • The most destructive European war up to WWI • Began as a local conflict in Bohemia; eventually involved most of Europe • Devastated the Holy Roman Empire (German states): lost one-third population • Saw independence of Holland, Switzerland from Holy Roman Empire • Ended with Germany neither holy, nor Roman nor an Empire • Scottish Presbyterians revolt • Expel Catholic Queen (Mary) with England’s secret assistance • Regents raised her son as Presbyterian

6. NEW RELIGIOUS MAP

7. STATE BUILDING • Italian city-states • Flourished with industries and trade • Each with independent administration and army • Levied direct taxes on citizens • More powerful absorbed smallest • France and England • Hundred Years' War (1337-1453) • Fought for control of French lands • Imposed direct taxes to pay the costs of war • Central government over feudal nobility • English War of the Roses leads to Tudor Dynasty • Louis XI reduces powers of feudal aristocracy • Spain united • By marriage of Fernando of Aragon and Isabel of Castile • Sales tax supported a powerful standing army • Conquered Granada from Muslims • Seized southern Italy in 1494 • Sponsored Columbus's quest for western route to China • Competition among European states • Frequent small-scale wars • Encouraged new military and naval technology • Technological innovations strengthened armies

8. NEW MONARCHS • New Monarchs • Taxes, armies as instruments of national monarchies by late fifteenth century • Used feudal powers but added new powers to become dominant in society • France, England and Spain • All three united after long wars • Kings have new, broad powers • Nobles often weakened; new nobles created out of middle classes • Enhanced royal, centralized powers • Wealthy treasuries by direct taxes, fines, and fees • State power enlarged and more centralized • Reformation increased royal power • Kings confiscate wealth, land of the Church • Kings sell off lands to middle class, making them loyal to state • New law courts enhance royal power • Kings tend to function above the law • English Star Chambers – do not require warrants, trials • The Spanish Inquisition, Catholic court of inquiry, founded 1478 • Intended to discover secret Muslims and Jews , heretics

9. ATTEMPTED REVIVAL OF EMPIRE • Charles V • Reigned 1519-1556 • Holy Roman Emperor • Austria • Czech lands, Silesia • Hungary, Slovakia, • Slovenia, Croatia • Netherlands • Eastern France • Milan, Northern Italy • King of Spain • Castile • Navarre • Catalonia • Two Sicilies • Spanish American Empire, Philippines • Inherited a vast empire of far-flung holdings through marriage • Unable to establish a unified state • Disputes with German nobles, France, and Ottoman Empire • German nobles resented his power and obstructed his every move • Many nobles became Protestant as it was a tool against emperor • Even Catholic nobles supported Reformation as it limited his religious influence • France opposed Charles and supported Protestants, Charles’ enemies • Charles main enemy was Ottoman Empire • France, Protestants and Turks allied against Charles • Charles forces defeat Turks, block moves; unable to take advantage of strength

10. CONTITUTIONAL AND ABSOLUTE MONARCHS • Constitutional states of England and the Netherlands • Divine Right Monarchs limited by war, nobles, wealthy • Characterized by • Powers limited by constitutions, bills of right, convention • No one is above the law, property is protected by law • Representative institutions: rights of oversight, taxation, review, veto • Prominent merchant classes enjoyed unusual prosperity • Commercial empires overseas with minimal state interference • Dutch constitutional monarchy evolved out of religious wars • England’s road to rights • Constitutional monarchy in England evolved out of a civil war • English Glorious Revolution 1688’;beheading of Charles I • English Bill of Rights 1689 • Absolutism in France, Spain, Austria, and Prussia • Based on the theory of the divine right of kings • Relied often on bureaucrats, professional armies • Great trappings of power especially palaces, images • Restricted power of aristocracy, legislatures and church • Relied on mercantilism to generate taxable wealth • Cardinal Richelieu • French chief minister 1624-1642 • Architect of French absolutism • Prussia began to rise in late 17th century • Based on absolutism and army • Eventually will unite Germany

11. LOUIS XIV OF FRANCE • King of France • Called the Sun King • Planets revolve around the sun • Sun gives light, warmth of the solar system • Reigned 1643-1715 • Bureaucracy • Used middle class for professional bureaucrats • Established intendantstp carry out wishes • Model of royal absolutism: the court at Versailles • Nobles reduced to serving king, state • Became generals, diplomats, ministers • Lived at Versailles where king spied on them • Large professional standing army • Well trained, well paid, well equipped • Kept, enforced order • Mercantilism and Colonies • Minister Colbert was mastermind behind wealth • Promoted economic development: roads, canals • Promoted industry, and exports especially luxuries • Built large French navy and colonies in North America, India • Rulers in Spain, Austria, Prussia, Russia saw France as model

12. EUROPEAN STATE SYSTEM • The Peace of Westphalia (1648) • Ended the Thirty Years' War • Promoted idea of independent sovereign states • Abandoned notion of religion unity • Did not end war between European states -Seven Years war largest in wake of Peace of Westphalia (1756) • The balance of power • Diplomacy based on shifting alliances • Religion unimportant to determining alliances • Destroy no nation • Make no permanent enemies • Military development costly and competitive • New armaments (cannons and small arms) • New military tactics • Extremely intricate fortifications

13. THE NATION-STATE • Nation-State • Ethnic group with common language, culture • Shared history, traditions • Shared institutions (faith, politics) • Occupying a common territory • Ruled by a common government • Government’s job • Insure domestic tranquility and happiness • Assumed many of the Church’s old social roles • Multiple ethnic groups destroy nation-state • Belief in Nation-state became new popular ideology • Love of your nation above others is nationalism • Originated as an elite idea of the aristocracy, educated elite • Loyalty to state, king more important than loyalty to church, pope

14. WAR AND PEACE

15. Changes • Population growth • American foods improved European nutrition, diets • Increased resistance to epidemics after 1650s • Life spans increased • Infant deaths decrease • Population growth • European population increased from 81 million in 1500 to 180 million in 1800 • Urbanization • Rapid growth of major cities: Paris from 130,000 in 1550 to 500,000 in 1650 • Cities increasingly important as administrative and commercial centers • Agriculture changes • New technologies applied to farming • Draining swamps, animal breeding • New tools to increase productivity • Manufacturing • Mass produced items common: textiles, metal products • Capitalism stimulates production as profitable • New jobs caused people to move into manufacturing from agriculture • New Social Classes • Rise of entrepreneurial class with great wealth • Rise of a technological managerial class

16. EARLY CAPITALISM • Profits and ethics • Medieval theologians considered profit making to be selfish and sinful • Renaissance merchants supported changes, arts becoming influential in society • Protestant Reformation saw profit, success as signs of God’s Favor • Early capitalism • Led to increased influence for urban middle classes • The Price Revolution • Use of money replaced barter • Imports of gold, silver led to trade imbalances • Mercantilism demanded payments in gold, silver • Spain, Portugal did not support manufacturing • Both countries had to import goods • Northern Europeans demanded payment in gold, silver • Too much money chasing too few goods • Inflation resulted • Peasants, aristocrats • On fixed incomes • Payment in kind economies suffered • Inflation drove real wages down

17. GRAPHS OF THE DISASTER

18. COMMERCIAL REVOLUTION • The nature of capitalism • Private parties sought to take advantage of free market conditions • Economic decisions by private parties, not by governments or nobility • Forces of supply and demand determined price • New managerial skills and banking arrangements arose • Joint-stock companies • Dutch East Indies, English East/West Indies Companies • Organized commerce on a new scale • Authorized to explore, conquer, colonize distant lands • Rise of Manufacturing • Adam Smith and The Wealth of Nations • Considered the founding father of capitalism • Society would prosper as individuals pursued their own interests • States were to support private interests, free trade

19. SOCIAL CHANGE, SOCIAL PROTEST • Rise of urban, rural working class • Referred to as proletariat • Paid low wages in horrible conditions • At mercy of price revolutions • Many peasants reduced to paid wages • Population growth • Urbanization increased tensions • Growth increased poverty • Social Tensions • Peasant revolts especially during Reformation • In France, Germany rose against landlords • Many sought more radical forms of Protestantism • Urban citizens also tended towards Protestantism • Persecution of witches • Elite and Mass Culture • Prior to Reformation, there were two cultures, elite and common • Two rarely intermixed or cooperated • Mass culture such as entertainment • Faith often became elite culture • The nuclear family strengthened by capitalism • Families more independent economically, socially, and emotionally • Love between men and women • Parents and children became more important

20. GENDER ISSUES • Witch-hunts in Europe • Theories, fears of witches intensified in 16th century • Reformation fed hysteria about witches and devil worship • About sixty thousand executed, 95 percent of them women • Commercial, Capitalist Revolution • Women needed often to support family by outside work • Many women merchants very successful • Women assumed new economic roles • Education and Women • Education was one of few avenues open to women • Aristocratic women often educated • Enlightenment saw first major victories for women’s rights • Women ran intellectual salons of France • Many very prominent as philosophes: Madame de Stael

21. SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTIONS • The re-conception of the universe • The Ptolemaic universe • A motionless earth surrounded by nine spheres • Could not account for observable movement of the planets • Compatible with Christian conception of creation • The Copernican universe • Copernicus suggested sun was center of universe, 1543 • Implied that the earth was just another planet • On the Revolutions of Heavenly Spheres • The Scientific Revolution • Science becomes the new authority and challenges faith for control • Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) demonstrated planetary orbits elliptical • Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) • With a telescope saw sunspots, moons of Jupiter, mountains of the moon • Theory of velocity, falling bodies anticipated modern law of inertia • Tried by Inquisition as his ideas challenged Papal infallibility • Isaac Newton (1642-1727) • Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy in 1686 • Mathematical explanations of laws govern movements of bodies • Gravity

22. ENLIGHTENMENT • Enlightenment • Thinkers called philosophes • Sought natural laws that governed human society • Center of Enlightenment was France • Apply reason/science to society, government, law • Voltaire (1694-1778) • Champion of religious liberty and individual freedom • Prolific writer; father of Enlightenment • John Locke • Life, Liberty and Property; 1689 English Bill of Rights • Allowed persons to revolt against an oppressive ruler • Adam Smith: laws of supply and demand determine price • Montesquieu: checks, balances, balanced government • Deism • Popular among thinkers of Enlightenment • Accepted existence of a god • Ordered the universe according to rational and natural laws • Impact of Enlightenment • Weakened the influence of organized religion • Encouraged secular values based on reason rather than revelation • Subjected society to rational analysis, promoted progress