Syntax

1. Syntax Lecture 8: Modifiers

2. Recap on Clause Structure

3. Recap on Clause Structure There are three areas of the clause: The CP: the force of the sentence The IP: the tense and modality of the sentence The VP: the thematic structure of the sentence

4. Recap on Clause Structure All clauses are CPs (except exceptional clauses)

5. Recap on Clause Structure They are headed by complementisers, which may be unpronounced

6. Recap on Clause Structure Their specifier positions are empty unless a wh-phrase moves into them

7. Recap on Clause Structure The complement of C is IP

8. Recap on Clause Structure IP is headed by I

9. Recap on Clause Structure The specifier is the structural subject position It is basically empty until something moves into it

10. Recap on Clause Structure The thematic subject (agent) usually moves into the structural subject position But when there is no agent (e.g. in passives), the object can move there It can be filled by a pleonastic (it or there)

11. Recap on Clause Structure The complement of I is VP

12. Recap on Clause Structure The VP contains all the thematic arguments of the verb (until they move)

13. Recap on Clause Structure The thematic subject is in the specifier of VP before it moves to the specifier of IP

14. More Elements of Sentence Structure Sentences can contain more than the elements just reviewed: • Certainly, John must write a letter • John must diligently write a letter • John must write a letter by next week The ‘extra’ elements are not obligatory parts of a sentence, but they can freely occur: • Certainly, John must diligently write a letter by next week They function to modify the meaning of aspects of the sentence • Adding extra information about the situation described by the sentence.

15. The structural position of modifiers We start with the adverb which modifies the verb: • John must carefully word his letter As this follows the inflection (must), we can assume it to be part of the VP

16. The structural position of modifiers But where in the VP is it? • It can’t be the complement or the specifier as they are already filled • The subject originates in the specifier and the object is in the complement • As we have developed it so far, X-bar theory does not allow any other position • We therefore need a new position

17. The nature of modifiers Modifiers are optional • He (neatly) combed his hair Modifiers can come either side of what they modify: • He combed his hair neatly They come at the periphery of the phrase they modify: • He [VP (neatly) combed his hair (neatly)] • * He [VP combed neatly his hair] There can be multiple modifiers • He neatly combed his hair with a comb in the bath room

18. X-bar theory revisited The rules of X-bar theory conform to the following pattern: • Xn … Xn-1 … Every level is one bar smaller than its mother:

19. X-bar theory revisited = -1 new position specifier complement If we make one minor revision, we can account for all the properties of adjuncts: • Xn … Xn or n-1 … Thus each level contains another which has either the same number of bars or one fewer: This adds the needed extra position

20. Adjunction We call this new position the adjunct • All modifiers are adjuncts The adjunct differs structurally from the complement and the specifier

21. Adjunction • The complement is: • Sister to the head • Daughter of the X’ • The specifier is: • Sister to the X’ • Daughter of the XP • The adjunct is: • Sister to the XP • Daughter of the XP

22. The properties of Adjuncts Adjuncts are optional • We have the choice of two options: • XP  YP XP • XP  YP X’ • If we choose the first, we get an adjunct • If we choose the second, we don’t

23. The properties of Adjuncts There can be multiple adjuncts • The adjunction configuration is recursive • It involves an XP immediately inside an XP • Therefore the adjunction rule can apply to its own output

24. The properties of Adjuncts Adjuncts are peripheral • If adjuncts are adjoined to the phrase, the only way they can get inside the phrase would be to cross the branches of the tree

25. The properties of Adjuncts Crossing branches is impossible • X-bar rules only order sisters • Xn  Xm YP or YP X • Adjuncts are the aunts of specifiers and great aunts of complements

26. Adjuncts can come either side Actually complements and specifiers can come either side of the head • In different languages English puts heads before complements, Japanese puts them after: • [V’see him] [kareniaimasu] • [P’to him] [kare-ni] • [I’must go] [ikanakerebanaranai] • [C’that he knows] [karegashitteirukoto] So order is a matter of language choice • English chooses no particular order for adjuncts

27. Adjuncts with other phrases Most phrases can have adjuncts • A tall man • (AP adjoined to NP) • … that obviously he may leave • (AP adjoined to IP) • Honestly, who would say that • (AP adjoined to CP)

28. Conclusion Adjuncts are different from specifiers and complements and so we need a new structural position for them This position must account for their properties • optional, recursive, peripheral Adjunction involves a phrase containing a phrase of the same category and bar level