Cold War 1945-1991

1. Cold War1945-1991

2. Eisenhower and Kennedy

3. Eisenhower • Promised a change from Containment which he felt was a form of Appeasement: elected in 1952, served two terms, with Nixon as Vice-President • A passionate anti Communist; influenced by his Sec. of State, Dulles: he proposed Roll Back (more aggressive / like McArthur in Korea) over Containment • He was also very concerned with the huge military budget (NSC-68 / $50b +) and hoped to balance the overall budget

4. Eisenhower turned to a New Look military policy - rather than depending on costly armies and navies to fight limited wars as Truman did, he cut back on Conventional Military Forces • Reduced army by 500,000 soldiers, reduced navy by 100,000 sailors, increased air force by 30,000, and increased the stock pile of nuclear weapons / Atomic bombs • The new defense plan would save about $4b a year, thereby providing "a bigger bang for the buck,"

5. He supported circling the USSR and China with more and more US military bases / acquire more allies. By the end of the decade, Dulles had worked out mutual defense treaties with 43 countries around the globe. • With a smaller army and navy, and reliance on air force / atomic bombs, this called for Massive Retaliation (rather than small wars) against Communist aggression / attempted expansion • The prospect of Massive Retaliation would make the Communists think twice before being aggressive / expanding

6. But the policy of Massive Retaliation was dangerous – put the US in the position of having to use nuclear weapons / start nuclear or war, or in the position of doing nothing – all or nothing • It would be difficult, given the lack of conventional forces, to take the middle ground – conventional war (as in Korea) • Critics said that it created a policy of Brinkmanship, going to the brink of war / threatening, but then usually pulling back, doing nothing – limiting US options for response

7. Eisenhower, however was a realist - knew that nuclear war would be destructive. • Roll Back was more election rhetoric than reality: though rejecting Containment in his election campaign, he ultimately pursued Truman’s policy of Containment (Eisenhower did not try to Roll Back North Korea – approved of the Treaty / 38th parallel); never used Nuclear Weapons; only threatened to use them twice; against North Korea and China • Unlike Truman, he tried to engage in Détente – a relaxation of Cold War tensions, esp. by finding ways to compromise on the build up of nuclear weapons…started first talks with Soviets since Potsdam and the first ever talks with Communist China

8. A few weeks after Stalin’s death, he made his famous "Chance for Peace" speech, inviting friendlier relations with the USSR – took advantage of the fact that Stalin had died and that the new leader, Khrushchev, could not be as intransigent • He spoke of the high costs of the cold war - money spent on nuclear weapons could be used to end poverty (guns vs butter argument). Called on USSR to come to talks about nuclear disarmament. • In Dec. 1953 Eisenhower carried his appeal to the UN. There he proposed an "atoms for peace" plan in which the USSR and US would contribute radioactive materials to a stockpile for peaceful uses.

9. But as he made these proposals, US scientists continued with their atomic research and on March 1, 1954, the US tested the biggest H bomb ever - the equivalent of 15m tons of TNT - nicknamed Bravo. • The massive explosion in the South Pacific, at Bikini Atoll in the Marshall Islands, created a radioactive cloud that rained deadly silver ash on 7,000 sq miles of ocean waters and islands – its power alarmed world leaders • Finally in late 1954, USA and USSR agreed that their leaders should meet in 1955 - the first face-to-face meeting of leaders since Potsdam in 1945

10. Met in Geneva, Switzerland. Eisenhower proposed nuclear disarmament and "open skies verification" to create accountability (aerial inspection of each others sites / bases) • Khrushchev dismissed Open Skies Verification - nothing came of the summit, but at least the two super powers had begun to talk again • There seemed to be a spirit of goodwill - "spirit of Geneva“ – and the agreed to meet again later….this was the first Détente – relaxing of Cold War tensions

11. Through the rest of 1955 and into 1956, the Cold War seemed to be thawing / deicing - back in the USSR, Khrushchev, in Feb. 1956, openly condemned “Stalin’s crimes against the Soviet people” (gave the US hope that he was different from Stalin). • Moreover, he stated that Capitalists and Communism might be able to live together peacefully / “peacefully co-exist” and even declared that the Soviets might tolerate different kinds of Communism (China) – different from Stalin’s Two Worlds Speech • But events in Hungary shattered Détente and the Geneva Spirit

12. New Prime Minister of Hungary, Imre Nagy, inspired by Khrushchev's denunciation of Stalin, announced that Hungary would leave the Warsaw Pact, hold free elections, and called for Soviet troops to evacuate the country • The Soviets responded with force. On Nov 4, 1956, they sent 200,000 troops and 2,500 – 4,000 tanks into Budapest to put down an anti-Communist uprising of students and workers: 30,000 – 50,000 Hungarians killed; thousands forced into exile

13. Clearly the Cold War was far from over. • And the weaknesses of Roll Back and of Massive Retaliation were exposed; the US had encouraged Nagy, and the student protests, but now stood, doing nothing to stop the Soviet invasion and attacks • Events in Hungary put an end to the "Spirit of Geneva".

14. Any hopes of slowing the arms race fizzled out completely in 1957 when the Soviets tested their first successful intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM), a long range missile carrying a nuclear warhead. • Again, in Oct. 1957, the Soviets shocked the US when they launched Sputnik, the first ever satellite to orbit the earth. • They had forged ahead in the Nuclear Arms Race and in the emerging Space Race – it seemed that the Soviets had a clear advantage in science and technology

15. The US was shocked by advanced Soviet technology - US felt there was a “missile gap” • As a result of ICBM and Sputnik the arms race intensified. Eisenhower’s response • increased the funding for missiles development by $1b a year • Launched the National Aeronautics and Space Admin (NASA) to develop missiles, satellites • expanded the B-52 bomber fleet, built submarines outfitted with nuclear missiles, sent more short range missiles to European bases • huge investment in education / science and engineering, through the National Defense and Education Act of 1958

16. Budgetary concerns were now set aside – the USSR could not be allowed to lead in the Nuclear Arms Race or the Space Race • US regained some confidence / caught up / closed the gap when it launched its own satellite and developed its own ICBM in 1958 • Yet, Eisenhower regretted that he had created a powerful military-industrial combination / complex (or military-education-industrial combination) that could have an "unwarranted influence" in promoting war

17. Nuclear Arms Race • US – atomic bomb, 1945 • USSR – atomic bomb, 1949 • US – H bomb, 1952 • USSR – H bomb, 1953 • USSR – 1957 – ICBM and Satellite • USA – 1958 – ICBM and Satellite

18. Space Race • Space Race • 1957: Soviets - satellite – Sputnik • 1958: US starts its space program with opening of NASA – develops its own satellite • 1961: Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin makes history when he becomes the first man in outer space • 1961: US astronaut Alan Shepherd becomes the first American in space • 1961: Pres. Kennedy commits the US to sending a man to the moon and back by the end of the decade

19. 1961: Soviets are the first to send a man in complete orbit of the earth • 1962: US / John Glen become the first American to orbit the earth • 1965: USSR are the first to have a man walk in space / outside of air craft • 1969: July. Apollo II, US first to land a man on the moon – Armstrong • Expensive / high costs – Guns vs Butter argument…costly for Soviets esp. ...helped US win the Cold War…forced Soviets to keep up, US forced them into bankruptcy….they lost

20. Second Berlin Crisis • Nov. 1959 – due to the renewed bad feeling between the USSR and US, Khrushchev ordered the Allies out of West Berlin within 6 months / ultimatum – planned to unify it – as Stalin had tried to do in 1947 • Eisenhower diffused this potential crisis by basically ignoring the ultimatum, and by inviting the Soviet leader to visit the US…didn’t panic / over-react…statesmanlike • Khrushchev accepted the invitation, and during the visit agreed to withdraw the ultimatum (Camp David Spirit), and they drew up a plan to meet the next year in Paris for another conference about nuclear disarmament

21. U2 Spy Plane • After the rejection of the “Open Skies” proposal at the Geneva conference, and esp. Soviet development of ICBM and Satellites, the US began making secret high-altitude flights over Soviet territory to take detailed photographs • The plane used for these missions, the U2, was designed to fly higher than Soviet fighter planes and beyond the reach of anti-aircraft fire or surface to air missiles (SAM’s). • Eisenhower was uneasy about the flights, worried that they would jeopardize the Paris conference planned with Khrushchev for May 1960

22. Dulles persuaded him to authorize one last flight - by Frances Gary Powers, on May 1st 1960, on the eve of the Paris Summit. His plane was shot down by the Soviets over Soviet territory – the US issued a false story that the plane had disappeared while on a weather mission. • Khrushchev announced that the plane had been brought down 1,300 miles into the Soviet Union by a Soviet rocket and that Powers had been captured alive and had confessed his spying activities. • Eisenhower then admitted the truth and took full responsibility for authorizing the flight….but did not apologize to the USSR

23. Khrushchev was angry – complaining that the incident made him look bad in the Soviet Union where hard liners disapproved of his willingness to negotiate with the USA • To regain prestige back home, Khrushchev used the beginning of the Paris Summit conference to denounce the US and then left (same later at a UN meeting in NY)….nothing came from the Paris Summit…the U2 incident ruined it and prevented further progress on the issues of Berlin and nuclear arms reduction…Soviet-US relations had been plunged to their lowest point under Eisenhower • As Eisenhower feared, the U2 incident had put an end to his effectiveness as a peacemaker. • Because of the U2 incident, the 1960s opened with tension between the two superpowers as high as ever

24. The few hopeful events of the 50s – the Geneva Summit, and the Soviet Union’s turn away from Stalinism – had been eclipsed by aggression, competitiveness, and mutual suspicion

25. Eisenhower Expands the Cold War • Under Truman the Cold War was fought in Europe and Asia: - Truman Doctrine - Greece, Turkey, Berlin - Marshall Plan – Western Europe - Asia – Containing China and Korea • Eisenhower expanded the Cold War to Latin American - Guatemala and Cuba and the Middle East – Iran and Egypt (also Africa?) while also fighting it in Asia – Vietnam, Taiwan / China – Quemoy, Matsu

26. After WW II, many small under-developed (“third world”) nations were emerging from former colonialism / imperialism • The US and USSR competed to win these over as client states / satellite states during the Cold War –they also had valuable natural resources • Many preferred to remain neutral, some had more sympathy with the USSR than with the USA whom they saw as more imperialistic and capitalist – the US had the more difficult task of winning them over

27. Underdeveloped nations became Cold War battlegrounds – the US and USSR offered material and financial incentives, or outright interference in their affairs (CIA) to stop them falling into the hands of the other side

28. Middle East; Iran, 1951 • US wanted Middle Eastern countries on its side, to keep them from becoming Soviet Satellites • US also wanted continued access to their oil resources – in which they had already heavily invested • King or Shah of Iran, Reza Shah Pahlavi, a supporter of US investment, was overthrown by a liberal leader Mohammad Mossadegh (Mossadeq), who began nationalizing foreign owned oil resources (US and British esp.)

29. Shah Pahlavi Mossadegh

30. as well as concern with losing its oil resource, Eisenhower feared that Iran could become a breeding ground for Communism (Domino Theory) • Eisenhower decided to use the CIA to engineer a Coup – Operation Ajax – to overthrow Mossadegh and restore the Shah…propaganda, demonstrations (paid people to demonstrate against “Communist” gov.…) • The restored Shah retained power as a dictator until 1979 through a brutal police force – SAVAK – armed and trained by the USA (overthrown in the Revolution led the Ayatollah Khomeini / Islamic Fundamentalism; …anti-American bitterness, hostage crisis)

31. Considered a victory in the battle for Containment • But the US would support a brutal right wing dictator in the name of anti-Communism – another “questionable ally” (South Korea – Rhee; Iran - Shah: Guatemala-Armas: South Vietnam-Diem: Chile-Pinochet…)… • US mistakenly associated Nationalism with Communism, and Democracy with Capitalism • US had an ally in the regions (others also in Iraq, Pakistan).. considered of great geopolitical importance

32. Egypt, 1955 • New nationalistic leader Nasser succeeded in 1953 • Was determined to develop resources and establish the independence of this former British colony, while remaining neutral in the Cold War; traded Egyptian cotton for Soviet arms • To keep him from friendship with the USSR, the US offered to fund his plans for a huge irrigation and power plant – the Aswan Dam on the Nile • But after Egypt extends recognition to China, US withdraws offer

33. Nasser then seizes British and French owned Suez Canal – the toll fees ($25m a year) can pay for the new project at Aswan – and the USSR offers to provide the technical assistance for the project • British, French, supported by Israel, invade Egypt to regain control of the Canal • UN and US condemn the invasion and demand that they withdraw – divisions among Cold War allies are appearing • Ultimately Egypt gained full control over the canal

34. But the US did not gain from getting the Br, Fr, Israelis to withdraw or from Egypt getting control of the canal • Nasser never forgave the Allies – built the Dam with Soviet assistance and remained friendly with the USSR – though never becoming a client state or accepting Soviet dictation • Yet, Egypt is considered a loss to Communism in the battle for Containment • Did Eisenhower’s over-reaction push Nasser towards the Soviets (as with Castro)?

35. Response to the loss was the Eisenhower Doctrine, 1957, which proclaimed that the US would offer economic and military aid to "secure and protect the territorial independence" of Middle East nations "against overt armed aggression from any nation controlled by international communism.” (same as Truman Doctrine for Europe) • Implemented when the US sent troops to Jordan in 1957, fearing a coup by pro-Nasser forces, and to the Lebanon, for the same reason, in 1958

36. Latin America • US had huge investments here from years of Dollar Diplomacy • Had withdrawn from military involvement since Good Neighbor Policy of FDR • Didn’t want to lose investments through Nationalization if Communism emerged, and didn’t want Soviet satellites in the Western Hemisphere; hoped to continue with Monroe Doctrine and keep out USSR influence

37. Guatemala: • In the late 1940s and early 1950s the newly elected liberal / left wing govt. of Jacob Arbenz Guzman began to nationalize foreign owned land and industries, and to redistribute land to the peasants • Included land owned by Americans, esp. by the United Fruit Company (Dulles brothers were big shareholders). • After complaints to his govt. Eisenhower instructed the CIA to intervene to help overthrow the Arbenz admin. (Operation PBSUCCESS)

38. CIA supported a successful coup led by Carlos Castillo Armas, who remained on good terms with the US, but became a brutal right wing military dictator (shades of Iran) • Pro - US strong men / military ruled Guatemala until 1990s • Other Latin American nations again accused the US of interference / bad neighbor policy – overthrowing legally elected leaders: when Nixon, Vice Pres., toured Latin America in 1958, he received a hostile reception in most cities he visited

39. This pattern of US intervention in Latin America, in the name of Containment - was repeated many times from the 1950s to 1990 (some argue it was more about protecting US investments) • In another example, the Nixon Admin., in 1973, helped overthrow liberal / socialist Salvador Allende, President of Chile, who, like Arbenz, was nationalizing foreign owned land and industries….CIA • With the help of the US, the brutal dictatorship of Augosto Pinochet took control of Chile until 1988

40. Cuba • Controlled by a corrupt repressive military dictator, Fulgencio Batista (right), from 1947 – 1959: supported by USA because he protected US investments, esp. in sugar, oil.. • Overthrown by Fidel Castro, in 1959: claimed he was a nationalist, liberal, populist, but not a Communist - though his own party, the 26th of July Movement, had close ties with the Communist Party…and Socialist policies of land distribution.. but more nationalist /anti-imperialist than anything

41. Visited US in 1960 but Eisenhower refused to meet with him: met by Nixon who treated him disrespectfully and accused him of being a Communist • Castro began a policy of partial expropriation of foreign owned land and industry (as in Iran, Guatemala) • US reaction – partial trade embargo, Castro and the USSR work out a trade deal…USSR replaced USA as buyer / seller

42. After US oil companies refused to refine USSR oil in Cuba… Castro moved to total nationalization of US owned assets • Eisenhower authorized a total trade embargo, followed by end of diplomatic relations between the US and Cuba… alienates / drives Cuba towards USSR…was this necessary? • Then authorized the CIA to help train a group of Cuban exiles for an invasion to topple the Castro regime…..Bay of Pigs

43. Asia: Taiwan, China, Vietnam • Support for Taiwan…two China’s policy…opposes China’s raids on Quemoy and Matsu…threat of nuclear weapons…China backs off….talks….first détente with China • Vietnam…support for and then replaces French as defender against Communist / Ho Chi Minh expansion…beginning of long commitment…refusal to co-operate with elections proposed by Geneva Accords…over-estimated role of China and USSR…350 advisers

44. Eisenhower EssayDifferences and similarities with Truman • Promised Roll Back, New Look, Massive Retaliation, Brinkmanship….not applied to South Korea, Hungary • But pursued Containment • Détente…Geneva, Paris…but Hungary, ICBM, Sputnik, U2 Spy Plane • Berlin, diffused and contained • Asia – Vietnam, Taiwan, Quemoy and Matsu • Cold War expands to new regions Latin America – Cuba, Guatemala: Middle East – Iran, Egypt

45. Successes and Failures • Successes • First Détente • Berlin Contained • Containment in Iran, Guatemala, Taiwan • Nuclear Arms Race, Space Race – closed missile gap, deterrence factor, forcing Soviets into eventual bankruptcy • Failures • Détente…U2 mistake • No Roll Back…Massive Retaliation means “do nothing”…Exposing Hungarians to Budapest massacre • Covert Operations by CIA to overthrow Democratically elected leaders in Iran, Guatemala….replaced with brutal military dictators • Alienating Cuba, Egypt into Soviet Camp • Escalating US involvement in Vietnam..support for Diem • Not engaging Communist China…nuclear weapons threat Quemoy, Matsu

46. Assessment • Changes from Truman’s approach / handling of the Cold War? • Successes and Failures? • Successes; Détente, Arms and Space Race – forcing the Soviets to spend, Containment of Iran, Guatemala, Taiwan • Failures: alienating Cuba, Egypt…Support for brutal right wing regimes / undermined Democracy (Guatemala, Iran, Vietnam) Arms and Space Race / over-reaction to Sputnik, exaggeration of Missile Gap…escalation of involvement in Vietnam

47. Kennedy • Bay of Pigs, April 1961 • In the Summer of 1960 the CIA began secretly training Cuban expatriates – know as La Brigada – in Florida, Panama, Guatemala, for an invasion of the island in the hope of triggering a mass uprising against Castro and overthrowing his regime (Operation Zapata) • Kennedy inherited the Plan and approved of it after CIA assurances that it would succeed – but he did not want US involvement in it to be too obvious (no “sneak attack”)…wanted “plausible deniability” ….

48. On the night of April 17th, 1961, some 1,400 Cuban exiles landed on the island’s southern coast at the Bay of Pigs – expecting air support and a spontaneous uprising of the Cuban people. Nothing went as planned • An air strike carried out two days before had failed to knock out the Cuban air force, although the CIA reported that it had done so • Kennedy had at the last second reduced the air strike, (from 16 to 6 planes) helping to render it ineffective

49. He then canceled the second air strikes planned to coincide with the actual invasion – the invasion failed • Castro turned the failed invasion into a public relations triumph….triumph of nationalism…defeating the hated imperialist US…became more popular among Cubans • The disaster left Kennedy embarrassed. Privately he blamed the CIA and Pentagon for miscalculating and misinforming him. Publicly he accepted blame for the fiasco. He negotiated terms with Castro for the release of the survivors and paid a ransom of $53m in food and medical supplies..

50. But he warned that he would resist any further Communist expansion in the Western Hemisphere: he said that the US did not intend to abandon Cuba to Communism – yet Castro defiantly welcomed more Soviet aid and forged a closer relationship with the USSR. • The whole episode pushed the Cubans closer to the Soviets. – and then in Nov. 1961 Castro declared himself to be a Communist….said that he was always a Communist… • Kennedy’s reaction was to agree to the CIA’s plans to assassinate Castro – Operation Mongoose – but several assassination attempts failed