Social Structures during the Roman Republic

1. Social Structures during the Roman Republic Offices, Assemblies, and Religion

2. Political Order • 4th century to end of the Republic • Direct participation of citizens • All roles performed under the watch of the public eye • Officials dealt directly with those they governed - lack of a bureaucracy • Government dominated by a few elite families

3. Government Offices • Quaestors • Formed in the mid 5th century • Oversaw public money • Supervised the treasury (Temple of Saturn) and the fund that generals took on campaigns • Aediles • Elected annually • Two plebian and two patrician (curule aediles) • Maintained temples, city streets, markets • Judged disputes that arose in the markets

4. Government Offices • Praetor • Elected annually • Originally one, then two (242 BC), then more as the empire expanded • Office opened to plebians through the Conflict of Orders • Leading officials in Rome when consuls were absent on campaign • Acted as judge • Different praetors had different roles • Propraetor - govern a province • Wore the toga praetexta, held imperium, 6 lictors

5. Government Offices • Consul • 2 consuls chosen each year • Generals of the army • Made sacrifices, presided over meetings of the senate, addressed assemblies, listened to complaints, made judgments • Proconsul - govern a province • Toga praetexta, curule, imperium, 12 lictors

6. Government Offices • Tribune of the Plebs • Office formed during the Conflict of Orders • Most important of the lesser officeholders • Had the right to summon citizens to vote • Ability to block public actions that they thought were unlawful or inappropriate • Veto power over consuls (except when appointing a dictator) • Protects the Plebians • They could not prevent praetors and consuls from acting as they wished outside the city of Rome (so they could not interfere with campaigns)

7. Government Offices • Censor • 2 censors • Elected very 5 years, held office for 18 months • Counted citizens and assigned them to centuries and tribes • Based on place of residence, property, dependents, and even character • Selected the 300 senators based on rank • Highest ranking senator was given the title princeps senatus

8. Dictator • Elected in times of emergencies • Senate would declare that a dictator was needed, and the consuls would select one • In power for 6 months • All other magistrates, except Tribune of the Plebs, were suspended • 24 lictors, highest imperium • Magister Equitum - master of the horses appointed as second in command • 6 lictors, praetor role

9. Imperium and Auspicium • Imperium • a special right to command • Religious association • Gave magistrates authority to lead armies and punish offenders • Imperium limited by office and presence of higher offices • Auspicium • Right to seek the approval of the gods for their tenure in office and their official actions • Rituals of divination known as auspices, read by augurs

10. Cursus Honorum • Problem with same people holding offices • Order of public offices • Minimum age for each office (patricians could subtract 2 years from minimum age) • Though rarely allowed in the 1st century BC • It was a mark of great political success to obtain a position in suo anno • Cicero - “new man,” elected to consul in suo anno

11. Cursus Honorum • 10 years of military duty (20-30) • Military Tribune - 24 legion commanders • Quaestor (30) • Aedile (36) • Not required to move on to next step • Praetor (39) • Consul (42) • Highest office • Censor (usually had to have served as consul)

12. The Senate • 300 men • usually all office holders were senators, usually lifelong membership • Met when summoned by consul, praetor, or tribunes of the plebs • Advisory role to the officials of Rome • Gradually assumed more active role

13. Assemblies • Open to all male citizens • Not representative • Voted on officeholders, laws, and trials • Officials determined the agenda, citizens only discussed and voted • Contiones - occasions just for discussion and debate • Comitia and concilia - voting • All assemblies met in Rome (or near)

14. Comitia Centuriata • Organization mirrored the army • Elected consuls, praetors, and censors • Voted on matters of war and peace • Only an official with imperium could summon the assembly • Voting done by century (determined by class) • Each century got one vote • Favored upper classes

15. Comitia Tributa • Organized by tribes • 4 tribes in the city • 31 in the country • One vote per tribe no matter how many people in assembly • Elected quaetors, curule aediles, and military tribunes • Had the power to try cases (though taken away in later reforms) • Legislative power

16. Concilium Plebis • Assembly for plebeians • Passed laws, elected magistrates (tribunes and plebeian aediles), and tried judicial cases • Organized based on tribes

17. Religion • Not separated from governmental institutions • Cheif magistrates performed major rites of the city • Officials were often advised by priests • Pontifex (pontifices) exercised general supervision over the religion, rites, and the Roman calendar • 9 pontifices by 3rd century, 15 in 1st century • Headed by the pontifex maximus

18. Religion • Augurs • Auspices which confirmed officials power in the eyes of the gods • Vestal Virgins • Wives of pontifex maximus and the priest of Jupiter (flamen Dialis) took part in some of their husbands ritual responsibilities