The Enlightenment c. 1650-1750

1. The Enlightenment c. 1650-1750 Age of Reason

2. Enlightenment • Philosophers of the time took note of scientific methodology successes using reason to explain natural law. Thought they could do the same with human nature. • Government – 2 philosophers would come to dominate the field of political philosophy.

3. ENLIGHTENMENT (1700’s) • Logical way of thinking about human concerns (combines science and philosophy) • “Philosophes”  thinkers during the Enlightenment • Centered in Paris, France – most autocratic and powerful country in Europe • Rationalist – God created the world, but gave people free-will • Secularist – Separation of Church and State emphasized • Push for religious tolerance during this era • PopularSovereignty – People create and control the government – State is only legit if the people consent to it

4. Thomas Hobbes • All humans are naturally selfish and wicked and needed governments to keep order. • People should hand over their right to a strong ruler. • Strong ruler should have total power (absolute monarch). • Hobbes coined the phrase “Social Contract” in his book “Leviathan” • Leviathan is a sea monster, which he said is what a powerful government is like.

5. Thomas Hobbes Lived through the English Civil War • “Leviathan” (1651) • Explained Hobbes Political Philosophy • Social Contract among rulers and subjects • Absolute Ruler <–> Subjects • Give up Ind. Rights for protection and social order • Believed people act out of self interest only • Without rulers it would be a dog eat dog world • Basic distrust of humanity • Supported Absolute Monarchs – as long as they aimed to be just

6. Enlightenment Philosophers • Social Contract – people gave up certain rights in favor of a strong ruler in order to get law and order (e.g. Hitler) • John Locke • Locke almost the opposite of Hobbes’ viewpoint • People’s behavior is shaped by experiences, not by predestination at birth. • Improvement of bad people possible by learning from negative experiences.

7. John Locke • Favored self-government which stemmed from 3 natural rights: life, liberty and property (pursuit of happiness) • Government is designed to protect those rights and its failure to do so allows citizens to rebel against it and replace it. • Government’s power comes from the consent of the people!!

8. John Locke • “Two Treatises of Government” (1689) • Also believed in a social contract • Looked at it differently though • Rulers had to protect people’s natural rights • Life, Liberty and Property • Natural Rights were superior to government laws • Rulers could be overthrown if natural law was not upheld • Absolute rulers who denied rights were no better than a tyrant and deserved to be overthrown • Influences the basic components of the of a very famous US document

9. The Philosophers • These were social critics of the 18th century, mainly French • They tried to use reason to solve social problems • Believed absolute monarchism and divine right to be immoral • Objected to privileged few (clergy, nobility) and became deists • Deistsbelieve in God but reject organized religion and rituals while only accepting religious teachings explained through scientific understanding. Christ was a teacher, not Son of God. • Many Philosophers were atheists

10. François-Marie Arouet (Voltaire) “Philosophical Letters” 1733 • Attacked French monarch, nobles, and clergy with political satire • Jailed several times – had to flee to Sweden • Staunch defender of personal freedoms • “I may not approve what you say, but I will fight to the death to defend your right to say it.” • Voice of the Enlightenment • Espoused personal, intellectual and religious freedoms over all else

11. Philosophers • Jean Jacques Rousseau • Well known philosopher whose book “The Social Contract” proposed an ideal society in which all people used a form of direct democracy, and no ruler. Will of majority would be law. (“general will”) • Like Locke, he believed people to be basically good.

12. Jean-Jacques Rousseau • “Social Contract” (1762) • Believed that humans were naturally good • Thought that government, education and politics corrupted them • One of the first to look at humans in their natural state of being – before civilization… • One of the first Enlightenment philosophers to suggest a Direct Democracy over a Constitutional Monarchy(Profound impact on French Revolution and US Declaration of Independence • Popular Sovereignty • Government gains their legitimacy from the people • People must choose their government • People must create and control their government

13. Philosophers • Baron de Montesquieu • Admired English system of law based on checks on ruler and limited monarchy • In his writings he specified that separation of powers between executive, legislative, and judicial branches of government could guarantee citizens’ rights. • Separation of powers would prevent any person or group from gaining control of government, thus safeguarding the people’s liberty. • Proposed “checks and balances”

14. Baron de Montesquieu “The Spirit of the Laws” (1748) • Tried to describe the perfect government • Believed that Great Britain had the best form of government • Preferred Constitutional Monarchy over a Republic or Direct Democracy • Three Branches that shared power • Could balance each other out with a system of checks on each others power • Funnily enough he was actually wrong about England’s government • Yet his idea influenced US government

16. Enlightenment leads to Revolution • Revolution scares most monarchs because it • Threatens them directly • Ruins economy • Upsets status quo • Weakens them politically • As Enlightenment spread its ideas across Europe, some Monarchs embraced reforms which were reflective of their Age of Reason spirit(i.e. Catherine the Great {Russia}, Frederick II {Prussia}

17. Enlightened Despots • Known as “Enlightened despots” who agreed to less censorship, religious toleration, and improved education • Motivation was to keep revolution at bay and reign secure

18. American Revolution • Philosophers published ideas widely in Europe criticizing governments, promoting revolution and attacking social injustices • Church believed ideas to be corrupt, undermining proper authority and irreligious • Where their ideas took root was in the American colonies!

19. American Revolution • (1) Colonies facing crisis after 1763 (French and Indian War ended) as Britain taxed colonies to help pay war debts • Colonists pretty mad about it since they had nothing to say about it • King George III’s government could care less. • Colonists had colonial governments which the crown ignored

20. American Revolution • (2) Stamp Act (1765) was a tax on all printed material and led to “taxation without representation”, was against English law. • Repealed one year later • (3) Townsend Acts of 1767 again taxed colonists over goods (e.g. glass, lead, paints, paper and tea) • Repealed them 3 years later fearing revolt (except for tea) Boston Tea Party 1773

21. American Revolution • (4) Intolerable Acts passed by Britain to punish colonies until tea paid for which directly led to first revolt • (5) First shots Lexington and Concord in 1775 made it “point of no return” • (6) Declaration of Independence (written by Jefferson), 1 year later, used Locke’s theory of natural rights as its basis and stated:

22. American Revolution • Declaration of Independence stated: • Life, Liberty, and pursuit of happiness • People have right to remove a government which oppresses it • Rights are natural (inalienable) cannot be taken away. (Natural Rights come from God) • (7) Revolution spread to southern colonies and fought for next 5 years.

23. American Revolution • (8) Key battles: Lexington/Concord (opening shots) Saratoga(kept colonies from being split; French aid 1778-turning point of war) Yorktown (final British surrender) • (9) Colonies now on own, must make new government out of 13 independent states • Articles of Confederation 1st attempt at centralized government but states kept it weak • Had no money, open to attack, no power to enforce laws in states.

24. American Revolution • (10) U.S. Constitution 1787 made a stronger government along federal lines • Federal means power sharing between central government and states • Montesquieu’s ideas on separation of powers along with English checks and balances used to craft document

25. American Revolution • (11) Bill of Rights – guaranteed freedoms which reflected Enlightenment ideals of individual freedom

26. French Revolution • Question: Who is most likely to support a Revolution? • Question: Why would a government threatened by Revolution refuse to meet the Demands for change? • (1) In France, the American Revolution had not gone unnoticed by the common folk • Unhappiness with absolute monarchy and privileged nobility and clergy was starting to mount among the lower classes.

27. French Revolution • (2) The Old Regime was divided into 3 classes called ESTATES • 1st estate: clergy (1%) • 2nd estate: nobility (2%) • 3rd estate: all others (97%) • (3) First Estate: although clergy were powerful with wealthiest clergy originating among nobility; didn’t pay taxes. Lower clergy resented “non concern” for peasants exhibited by higher clergy

28. French Revolution • (4) Second Estate: Owned 25% of French land, all high government offices, controlled the armed forces, and many connected to king.

29. French Revolution • (5) Third Estate: Owned 50% of French land, but their parcels were too small to support families. • Agricultural reforms and distribution of tax burdens on land owners was medieval. Clergy paid no taxes on remaining ¼ of French land. • Taxes: Paid to Government and king and may be as high as 50%. Louis XIV and XV had left enormous debt.

30. French Revolution • Third Estate Continued: • Bourgeoisie: were the middle class who lived comfortably and were educated, but no political connections. • Liked the idea of reforms coming from Enlightenment thinkers like Montesquieu, Voltaire, and Locke. (e.g. Equality and Liberty) • 3rd Estate divided into 3 groups • Upper – Merchants • Middle – Artisans • Lower – 90% are peasants

32. French Revolution • (6) Louis XVI did not see, or was not told, of the resentment and did nothing to become an Enlightened Despot. • Inherited a poor government and couldn’t get nobility and clergy to accept taxes on their land (refused outright) • For first time in 170 yrs. French Monarch calls for a meeting of Estates-General to get approval for a tax plan on 1st and 2nd Estates.

33. French Revolution • Louis XVI continued: • Estates-General did not meet together (tradition) where 3rd Estate through sheer numbers could prevail. Nobles continued to meet apart from 3rd Estate. • Third estate is eventually locked out • Declares itself the “National Assembly” • Meets at indoor Tennis Court (Tennis Court Oath) • Agrees to keep meeting until a constitution is written • Marks the beginning of the Revolution • Louis agrees to let all three estates meet together

34. Phase 1 = National Assembly (moderate) • (7) Third Estate calls itself the National Assembly and vows to keep meeting until they can produce a French Constitution • TENNIS COURT OATH

35. Start of Real Trouble for King • Louis moves troops to Paris and Versailles • People storm Bastille prison in response and loot it for weapons and then destroy it • Bastille Day (July 14th 1789) • Gen. Lafayette forms people’s army • National Guard – formed under new flag • “Great Fear” spreads through France • Peasants storm manors and monasteries

36. "Liberty leading the People" by Eugene Delacroix

37. French Revolution • (8) National Assembly announces end of feudalism in France and its accompanying serfdom is banned. • Nobles now start fleeing France in great numbers • Things and positions reserved for the nobility are now open to all levels of citizens

38. French Revolution • (9) Declaration of the Rights of Man is pronounced by National Assembly which said: • Government belongs to people • Government’s aim should be to protect natural rights of liberty and equality • No one can be deprived of property without legal means employed and payment made • Very similar to U.S. Bill of Right and English Bill of Rights

39. Declaration of the Rights of Man • Created in August 1789 • “Men are born equal and remain equal before the law” • Free Speech, Press, and Religion • Guaranteed right to participate in gov’t • Right to Fair Trial • “Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity”

40. Louis is forced into Paris • Louis and the Nobility hold a banquet at Versailles • Praise King and insults NA • Group of Women storm Versailles and force King and royal family back to Paris

41. French Revolution • (10) Louis now is forced to cooperate with National Assembly as it dismantles absolute monarchy in France. It also: • Forces Church under state control, confiscates its lands and makes bishops and priest positions open to election • Seized lands of nobles who fled and proceeded to divide country into departments governed by elected officials • Adopted a constitution in 1791 limiting the king’s power and creating the Legislative Assembly. • This was the first stage of French Revolution

42. Constitution of 1791 • Limited the power of the King • Set up three branches of gov’t (Executive, Legislative and Judicial) • National Assembly dissolved and Legislative Assembly set up • Louis XVI accepts reforms but tries to flee Paris (caught in disguise) • People wanted a Constitutional Monarchy but now start to discuss a republic

43. French Revolution • (11) Louis XVI’s reign was coming to an end, as would his life at the hands of French Revolutionaries in about 18 months.

44. Phase 2: National Assembly RADICAL phase • Radicals take over Assembly and set up National Convention (abolish monarchy and declare France a republic) • Execute King Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette • Committee of Public Safety (Robespierre) • Reign of Terror (40,000 executed)

45. Goodbye Louis XVI • National Convention brought Louis XVI to trial and sentenced him to death • July 21st 1793 – Louis XVI is sent to the guillotine • Scares European Monarchs and alarms entire world • Thought that revolution had become too radical

47. “The Reign of Terror” • Attempt to suppress all opposition to the Revolution • Lasted from Sept. 1793 to July 1794 • Committee of Public Safety • Led by Maximilien Robespierre • To stop foreign threats (conscription) • To try “enemies of the Revolution” in France • Counter Revolutionaries try to fight back • Leader of Jacobins (Jean-Paul Marat) is murdered • Things are getting real ugly in France

49. The Guillotine “National Razor” • Jacobins start to execute not only the nobility but anyone suspected of treason • 20,000 to 40,000 people executed • Spring of 1794 – “Jacobin” Georges-Jacques Danton wanted the Reign of Terror to stop • France had started to force back foreign powers • Robespierre has Danton and his followers put to death • Robespierre was arrested and put to death • signifies the end of Reign of Terror (July 1794) • People are disillusioned and confused

50. The Directory (1794-1799) • National Convention makes new constitution in 1795 • Two-house legislature • Upper house selects five directors to run country (executive branch) • Eliminates Universal Manhood Suffrage • Was not too successful • Five directors fight among each other constantly • Conditions slightly improved in country but many still suffered • Set up path for military dictatorship… Napoleon Bonaparte