Lecture 3. Lexical Morphology

Lecture 3. Lexical Morphology • 1. Basic Theories of Morphology • Morphology（形态学/词形学）is the study of the internal structure of words. • (1)Inflectional morphology which studies the way in which words inflect in order to express grammatical meanings in sentence such as singular/plural, perfect/imperfect, comparative. • trees, flew, easier, raining..

(2)Lexical morphology (derivational ) which studies the principles governing the construction of new words,without reference to the specific grammatical role a word might play. • 词本位还是字本位？

胡裕树（1962）“词是代表一定意义、具有固定的语音形式、可以独立运用的最小结构单位。”胡裕树（1962）“词是代表一定意义、具有固定的语音形式、可以独立运用的最小结构单位。” • 但是很难找。因为“辨认汉语的语素比较容易，因为语素跟语素的界限比较清楚，而辨认汉语的词汇比较困难，因为词汇跟词汇的界限比较模糊”（张斌1988） • 而语素和字的概念比较接近。徐通锵（1988）提出语言基本单位的3个标准：1）现成的，拿来就能用的；2）离散的，封闭的，很容易和其他单位区别开来的；3）在语言社团中具有心理现实性。徐通锵（1994，1999）几篇文章提出了字本位。

1.2 Morphemes ( 语素/形位) the smallestmeaningful indivisible units of which a word is made up. • It is abstract unit and can be realized by morphemes(语素) or words (词) • A single word: one or more morphemes • One morpheme word: rely, care, sister, chocolate • Two morphemes word: rely+able, care+less, print+er, book+case • Three morphemes word: rely+able+ity, care+less+ly • teaches/played/raining

English: Inflecting language, • Chinese: Isolating language： • 汉语没有严格意义的形态变化。 • wo ba ni chi sheng de dan huang wei ying wu le • 我把你吃剩的蛋黄喂鹦鹉了 • A single character like玛,鹦，though it is the combination of sound and meaning, has no meaning at all. • One morpheme word: 我，吃，鹦鹉，葡萄 • 1) one syllable, go,来，去，天，地，好，买 • 2) two syllables, sister. yingwu (鹦鹉), manao(玛瑙)，仿佛，枇杷，咖啡、尴尬、蜘蛛 • 3) three syllables, liberty,巧克力，歇斯底里, 布尔什维克 • One morpheme one character, or two/three characters

1）words to Inflecting language,not isolating language 西方形态分析不适合汉语 • 词的标准：Words are the smallest meaningful units which are internally stable in terms of the order of morphemes • Eg: we, courage. • According to Cruse, Two criteria: • a.words are the smallest mobile units. • I saw Mary/ Mary saw me. • But morpheme can’t move. E.g unwillingly, willuningly. • The-boy-s-walk-ed-slow-ly-up-the-hill • Slow-ly-the-boy-walk-ed -up-the-hill

But Chinese morphemes: • 算盘/盘算, 平生/生平. 语言/言语，到达/达到，红花/花红，带领/领带 • b. words can’t be infixed, sth. can’t insert anything between two parts of a word, eg unbelievable • 洗澡/洗一次澡, 推动/推不动, 列了两次席，阅了三天卷，惊而不慌，不明不朗,骄傲专横 • c.words can be used individually.morpheme can’t . • boy, speak, boys/a boy, spoke/speaks • teacher, er, in+cred+ible • 男孩，说，老师，老+师，甜+头，季+节，葡萄

Words are essential to English sentences characterized by subject and predicate. Noun used as subject & object, Verb predicate. But Chinese N can be used as predicative, and V can be used Subjects and Objects. • Words and parts of speech mean nothing to Chinese sentences characterized of topic and comment. • Students read the interesting articles carefully • 一篇文章两种写法 • 今天天晴 • 唱歌跳舞是我的爱好 • 咳嗽不宜抽烟。 • 这事危险。他近视眼。 • 顽皮是他的特点。

便宜（拣了一个便宜、很便宜、便宜你了） • 方便（行行方便、很方便、方便大家） • 优惠（给你优惠、优惠价、优惠你） • 游泳（学游泳、游泳池、去游泳） • 照顾（需要照顾、很照顾、照顾病人） • 阅读（课外阅读、阅读书目、阅读古文） • 意识（思想意识、意识形态、意识到错了） • Graphology字位学 • Grapheme,字位 • Graph字符

Morpheme: two kinds • Free morpheme，it is a word, can be used individually • class, very, good, girl, 看，山，美，猫, 已经 • Bound morphemes：two types Roots and Affixes • Root(based morpheme） is part of a word to which an inflectional affix can be added，but can never stand by itself, though has clear meaning. • geo, aqu, mur，vade， noct， plore，preda，semin， • two-root word“geo”(the earth)+”-ology”(a branch of learning): • toler-(root)+”affix”(-ate), • audi-: audit+or, +ence, • sym+(the same)+pathy (emotion), empathy

Criteria of morpheme: • 1）similar position同一分布位置, • 2）meaning consistency意义一致, • 3）multiple occurrency 多次出现

汉语的字就相当于英语的语素和词的和。字能够等于语素，是因为语素既是音义结合体，汉语的字就相当于英语的语素和词的和。字能够等于语素，是因为语素既是音义结合体， • 吕叔湘（1980：40）说的“汉字、音节、语素形成三位一体的‘字’”。 “字”既是表义单位，同时又是发音单位，还是书写单位。 • “吐字清楚”、“字正腔圆”，指的就是音； “请你把一个字一个字写下来”，就是文字 • “一字千金”、“一字褒贬”、“一字一珠”就是意义。 • 由于在古汉语里单音节字大多数都可以单用，因此字和词（按英语词的概念）就统一在一起了，如“字斟句酌”、“用字不当”、“字句通顺”等，这些成语中的“字”都是“词”的概念。现在来分析，不是所有的字都是词，只有可以单用的字是词，而不能单用的字就是粘着语素。

英语是在词基础上造句，而汉语是在语素基础上造句，当中没有词的层次。英语是在词基础上造句，而汉语是在语素基础上造句，当中没有词的层次。 • 他爱这诗他看鸟飞 • he love+s the poem He see+s bird+s fly+ing • 汉语四个语素连在一起造句了。love是语素，必须先构成词：love + s，才能造句。 • morphemes----- words------sentences • 语素/字 ——————— 句子

viv（=life） sist(=stand) ject （=cast）geo(=earth) scrib(=writing) equ(water) aug(=increase) aud(=hear) bio(=life) spect(=see) brev(=short) celer(=swift) • dem(=people) dorm(=sleep) ped(=foot) • sume(=take) dict(=speech) pet(=drive) circul(circulatory) tract(=draw) • 是封闭的，英语中大约有418个 • 汉语中和它们对等的是什么？

有两种说法， • 一种是类似英语的非自由词根语素，如“觉”、“宜”、“佳”、“校”、“首”、“经”、“生”、“威”、“院”、“具”、“规”、“祖”等。它们和“人”、“山”、“跑”、“哭”这样的自由语素有明显区别，前者只能和别的语素组合成词，却不能单独成词或不能单用。 • 还有一种观点，认为汉字的构字部首如“艹”、“氵”、“⺮”、“刂”、“⻊”等应该是和viv、hydro、ped, ject等对等的非自由词根语素，因为它是最小的有意义的单位，合起来，可以构成一个词／字。

英语的非自由词根语素和汉语的非自由词根语素有相同之处。英语的非自由词根语素和汉语的非自由词根语素有相同之处。 • 1）在词中的位置是都不固定的，可以在词首，在词尾 • 。 • 2）它们的能产性都极强，可以构成许多合成词，如port(portable, porter,portfolio,deportation, import, export, transport, deport, report), • tort(torture, torment, tortile, torsion, intort, contort, distort, extort, retort), • memor (memory, memorize, memorable, memorandum, commemorate,remember, disremember, immemorial)，刻（刻度、刻毒、刻板、刻苦、刻意、刻薄、雕刻、深刻、立刻、即刻），禁（禁止、禁闭、禁锢、禁忌、禁令、禁书、禁区、严禁、犯禁、违禁

区别: • 1）英语中词根语素和词的界限比较清楚。一个本族语的五、六年级学生从外形上就能区别出bibli, heli, cosm, terr, verm, ornith, hydro, aqu, ru和book, sun, space,water。而汉语中非自由词根语素和词很难在外形上区分，即使是一个大学生也很难说“哭”、“山”、“枪”是词或自由语素，而“生”、“首”、“校”是非自由词根语素。他们的判定往往需要通过句法上使用上来判定。 • 2）英语的非自由词根语素是封闭的，只有418个，没有明显扩大的趋势，而汉语的非自由词根语素是开放性的，在整个汉语词库中，数量超过了自由语素，并有逐渐扩大的趋势。根据朱志平（2005）对3251个常用双音词的统计，非自由语素在语素总数中占到67% • 3）英语的非自由词根语素只能构成派生词，不能构成复合词（英语复合词必须是两个独立的词构成的）。而汉语非自由词根语素却可构成的复合词。也就是说，汉语复合词的确切的定义是两个和两个以上的语素（自由的和非自由的）构成的词。

Affixation • Affix is a bound morpheme which is added to a word, and changes the meaning or function of the words. • -ness, re-,dis-,en- -ing, -y, -fy -头，老-， • Two forms of affixes: • Inflectional affixes grammatical relations or grammatical categories(-ing,-ed, -er,s) • -们 • derivational affixes: • prefixes(mini-, un-, dis-, mis-, over-), 阿，老，非， • suffixes(-ise, -tion, -ful). 子，儿，者，化 • roots or prefixes • -viv- (-vit-)生命in re+vive, sur+vive, viv+id，vit+al, vitamin. 里，乎，得，

free ones(word) • morpheme bound ones • bound roots affixes • derivational affixesinflectional affixes • prefixes suffixes

Multi-morphemic words: Two words (twofree morphemes) combined to create a new word • blackbird.earthquake,bookcase, horsepower, 地震，道路，红旗，告别 • derivatives • enrich, 硬性 • Multi-morphemic words • Compounds • earthquake 道路

20 % of the items in the modern Chinese are mono-morphemic words(单纯词) • one-syllable ones(16.7%)鸟，蓝，八 • two-syllable ones(73.4%)(葡萄grape,坎坷uneven ，伶俐，坎坷), • three-syllable ones(5.2%)(维尼纶，后遗症，), • four-syllable ones(4.6%)(卡拉OK，言外之意), and so on.

transliteration音译词:沙发，坦克,维他命； reduplication叠音词:妈妈，星星，白花花，红艳艳 onomatopoeia拟音词: 乒乓，叮当 • But mono-morphemic wordsare much more frequently used than multi-morphemic words( 合成词) ,its frequency is70% of the total lexical usages.(Chinese is analytic language). • 80% of total vocabulary are multi-morphemic words( 合成词) . 4 types:

a.derivatives派生词 prefixation(老鹰，可爱，阿芳)suffixation(好汉，酒鬼，作家，画家 • 读者，弱者，歌手，能手，人性，悟性 • b.compounding复合词： • 文明，特色，科技，语言, 理发观光 • c.abbreviation:缩略词：人大，高考，科技 • d.numberization: 数字式：四化，三通，三包，六甲

(1) Derivation: Chinese and English differ • In total number, English has more derivative words. • roots prefixes suffixes • English: 420 115 222 • Chinese: 3630 51 110 • English derivation produce many words and create many new meanings. It is a means more productive in creating new words, • Of 161 Chinese prefixes and suffixes , 93 affixes from foreign languages

English roots(刘毅1999) • root • act, aero, alt(exalt, altitude), apt(aptness, adapt), arch, aud, bio, bre, cap, cast, chron, cide,cir,claim(claim, acclaim, exclaim), cracy, dent,dict,dorm(endorm, dormitory), fer, fess(pro-con-), firm, flict(af-, in-,con-) • flu(fluid, fluency, influenza),form, gam,(bi, mono-poly-) ,gram, hab, join(conjoin, disjoin,), laps(laps, collapse, relapse), lav,long(longevity, prolong, belong) ,manu(-script, al), mari(mariner, submarine),mem, min, neg, nov(novel, innovate,), pass, ped, pel(com-, ex-re-), port,

rupt(erupt, bank, cor, dis), scend, tort, vict, vis • Prefix: • ab, auto, be(befriend, befool, becloud, befall)em, en, ex, eu, extra, fore, goe, homo, hyper,il,im, mis, mono, multi, neo, per, peri, poly, pre, post, re, super, tele ,with (withhold, withstand) • Suffix: • able, acy, age, al, ancy, ate, ation, dom, ee, ette, ian, ism, itude, ize, kin, logy, ment, ness, ple, ous, ship, some, ward, y.

根(free or not completely free morphemes) • 现代汉语词典 • 哀，爱，岸，暗，跋，罢，百，班，版，笔，便，布，才，祖，坐，做，首，生，威 • 字首 • 有，老，小，初，可，家，半，贵，超，单，前，外，自，电，泛，黑，反，新，亲，洋，准 • 字尾 • 巴，部，边，底，儿，法，夫，馆，汉，乎，了，里，科，们，派，气，且，切，然，堂，厅，头，师，炎，手，以，子，表，病，度，分子，观，会，化，率，论，界，酒，票器，士，素，务，业，员，性，学，族，症，主义

(2)Compound: • Chinese tries to use existing morphemes to create more words. One productive way is compounding. It is the combination of a free morpheme + another morpheme • 人民，帮助，伟大，温泉，出版，肉麻。 • coordinated(道路，骨肉，语言，东西，眉目，讨论，射击，买卖), • subordinated (煤气，水车，方糖，皮球，铁路，扩大，抓紧), • complimented(建成，推翻overthrow，提高、说明、充实、延长),

VO-type(碰壁，发誓，宣言，插秧，上学，理发haircut，观光sightseeing)VO-type(碰壁，发誓，宣言，插秧，上学，理发haircut，观光sightseeing) • SV-type(心跳，耳鸣，心虚，眼花，面熟，地震earthquake)

(SV) headache---the head aches • sunrise, earthquake • playboy, watchdog • (VO) pickpocket----to pick the pocket, • drawbridge, push-button • haircut, birth-control • (Subordinated) chairperson, walking stick, hothouse • (VA) swimming pool-------to swim in the pool living room, handmade, • (SC) girlfriend-------the friend is girl, blackboard • (VC) take-off, turnover, outbreak, income

Zero-derivation(conversion). • Meanings are changed without adding affixes. cook/cook, water/water 领导/领导, 编辑/编辑,参谋，责编 • In English it is very productive, It is said that 26 % of English vocabulary is from conversion • attack n.---attack v. bottle n.-----bottle v. pilot n----v， skin, . • final a.--- n. • taste v.---n., a cry, a walk, • wool n.----a. • A U2 plane was downed by China's airforce.

He tried to find the hows and whys of the story.（他试图搞清事情的来龙去脉。） • His future is full of so many ifs.（它的未来充满着许多变数。） • I will winter in California.(我会去加州度冻。) • He pocketed all the profits.（他私吞了所有的利润。） • The novel mirrors the ups and downs of the city.（这本小说反映了城市的兴衰） • Don’t brother me.（不要和我称兄道弟。） • He doctored the patient.（他医治好了这个病人。） • I can’t stomach his insult.（我不能忍耐他的侮辱。） • He thumbed the pages of a book.（他用大拇指翻着书。） • She fingered my face.（她用手指触摸我的脸。） • The stream snaked its way.（小溪蜿蜒向前流去。） • Cocooning in his room, he immersed in high theory.(像蚕茧一样缩在自己房间里潜心研究高深理论。)

Analogy • bird’s eye---fish eye(全视的)----worm’s eye • spaceman---earthman----moonman • user-friendly----listener-friendly----reader-friendly • black market----grey market • blackout----brownout • boycott---girlcott • baby boom----baby bust • brain drain---brain gain • highrise --lowrise • hard line---soft line

earthenware类比出ironware（铁器）、copperware（铜器）、 glassware（玻璃用具）、 hardware(硬件)、software(软件) 、kidware（儿童软件）、rentware（出租软件）、freeware（免费软件）、courseware（课件）、houseware（家具器皿）、kitchenware（厨房用具）、 cookware（炊具）、sanitaryware（卫生器具）、giftware（送礼物品）

空姐----空嫂坐班----坐摊人均----户均 股民----基民家访----校访 • 人格----国格自学----校学引资----引智邮购----电购干洗----机洗 • 热点----冷点立交----平交到位----出位苦活----甜活古玩----现玩 • 大举----小举热区----冷区暴光----暴丑酒醉----景醉家务-----班务 • 经济滑坡，思想滑坡，文化滑坡，教育滑坡，科技滑坡，利润滑坡，工业滑坡

-cast: broadcast, newscast, radiocast, sportscast, telecast, colourcast, simulcast • -holic: alcoholic, workoholic, beeroholic,movie-holic, colaholic, teleholic, carboholic • -speak: • teacher-speak, netspeak, artspeak, mediaspeak, college-speak, biz-speak, srortspeak, techno-speak, computerspeak, lawyerspeak, consumerspeak, bureauspeak, summitspeak, warspeak, rockspeak, discospeak, China-speak, White-House-speak, Olympspeak, Reagonspeak, Clintonspeak

族：上班族、集邮族、炒股族、炒房族、本本族、打工族、追星族、私车族、钓鱼族、工薪族、按揭族、休闲族、音响族、留守族、下海族、刷卡族、单身族、素食族、减肥族、丁克族、下岗族、外来族、有房族、网络族、傍款族、外嫁族、持照族、哈日族、哈韩族、发烧族族：上班族、集邮族、炒股族、炒房族、本本族、打工族、追星族、私车族、钓鱼族、工薪族、按揭族、休闲族、音响族、留守族、下海族、刷卡族、单身族、素食族、减肥族、丁克族、下岗族、外来族、有房族、网络族、傍款族、外嫁族、持照族、哈日族、哈韩族、发烧族 • 零：零首付、零增长、零投诉、零志愿、零起点、零风险、零事故、零故障、零举保、零损耗、零空驶、零换乘、零辐射、零利润、零库存、零压力、零等待、零距离、零缺陷 • 软：软件、软盘、软着陆、软饮料、软包装、软科学、软技术、软广告、软设备、软资源、软指标、软处理、软人才、软环境、软课题、软新闻、软原则、软挂钩、软任务、软通货

Shortening: bus(omnibus), zoo(zoological gardens), • a. Initialisms(words formed from the initial letters of words an pronounced as letters) VOA, WTO, IOC, IMF，VCD • b. Acronyms (words formed the initial letters of words and pronounced as words) NATO, SALT=Strategic Arms Limitation Talks, DOB=Date of Birth • c. Clipping(words created by clipping part of a word, leaving only a piece of the old word) phone=telephone, copter=helicopter, ad,exam, pro, expo, flu, fridge • d. Blending(words created by combing parts of other words) smog=smoke+fog, brunch=breakfast+lunch • workfare, medicaid,

C.科技，国企，邮编/高工，流感，北图/外长，空姐，师院/民警，史地，定编/影星，师生/文革，扭亏，广交会/C.科技，国企，邮编/高工，流感，北图/外长，空姐，师院/民警，史地，定编/影星，师生/文革，扭亏，广交会/ • D.海内外，师兄弟，祖父母/离退休，企事业，中高档，工农业。 • Two syllables地铁，责编，科研，影评，高校,审批，彩电，高考，美协，食疗，工改，，西欧，北美,篮联，高专，普法，超重，简体，国策， • .Three syllables 亚运会，奥委会，博士生，世政系,数理化，房管所，土特产，中西医，传帮带，绿化办，供销社，考古所

Lecture 3. Lexical Morphology