Unit 2 1648-1815

1. Unit 2 1648-1815 Chapter 8: Consolidation of Political Power

2. Big Picture 1648 (Peace of Westphalia: end of religious wars) to 1815 (Congress of Vienna: end of Fr. Rev and Napoleonic wars) another time of tremendous change. States are struggling with political questions, rapid economic change, growing secularism, and nationalism. Continuing to question what had once been basic assumptions about life

3. Political Absolutism Peaks (standard form of gov’t except for constitutional areas in England and Netherlands) Enlightenment creates interest in redefining government’s role- French Rev shakes traditionalists to their core

4. Economic European dominance expands locally and globally Nations around and engaged in Atlantic trade become dominant. Industrialization creates a new standard for econ “leader” nations

5. Popularity of Scientific Revolution/Enlightenment Scientific knowledge spreads. Emphasis on rationalism encouraged people to approach other issues in the same way- say political or social problems- solve them with scientific tools/theories/methods

6. Population Change Big pop. Spike in 16c- (due to changes in food, improved sanitation etc…) Widespread urbanization begins for 1st areas to go through I.R.

7. Consolidation of medieval (feudal) kingdoms into centralized states. Europe is small- there is a limited amount of space- therefore constant competition Church has lost power- which left more available for kings What is Happening?

8. Two Models: Absolutism and ConstitutionalismAbsolutism: Where? Monarchs had complete control over kingdom- no limits to power Spain, France, Prussia, Austria, Russia

9. Characteristics Philosophy of • The King IS the country, not subordinate to nobles or an assembly. • The king appoints/controls the bureaucracy. Large standing army. • Totalitarian (but w/o attempt of control daily lives of ordinary citizens) • Jean Bodin/Thomas Hobbes wrote during civil wars in Fr and Eng- both believed the state (king) needed to be strong to protect the people from themselves • Bishop Bossuet- “divine right of kings”

10. Decline of Spain • During 16c Spain was the most powerful country in Europe- but they fell almost as fast as they had risen • Inquisition- reduced population from 7.5-5.5 million- and the ones who left were best and brightest • Command econ controlled by crown- and not well. Trade fell 60% from 1600-1660 (lost out to Eng and Dutch) • Taxes very high for peasants- little incentive to start business etc… • Inflation from new world silver caused “price revolution”

11. Economic Difficulties Lots of $$ came in from vast colonial empire- but it only went to a few groups. Castile controlled bureaucracy, Seville had monopoly on Atlantic shipping, Barcelona on Med. Shipping Fought lots of wars- and lost a lot (expensive) New world silver started to dry up Lost Netherlands

12. Political and Military Decline Defeat of Spanish Armada (1588)in their attempt to invade England a real turning point. Also- on losing side of 30 years war (lost Netherlands) By 1700 Spanish navy had 8 ships Treaty of Pyrenees 1658 (ended Fr/Sp conflict from 30 years war- France took Spanish Netherlands) end of Spain as a great power- become a backwater dreaming of former glories

13. Revolt and Secession “Spain” had been created by Ferdinand and Isabella out of Castile/Aragon- but there were still independent areas. Weak leadership of Philip III, Philip IV, Charles II encouraged them to challenge crown. 1630-40s revolts broke out- largest in Catalonia & Portugal (Portugal successfully independent 1668) Also rebellions in Spanish holdings in Europe- like Italy (Sicily/Naples rebel) Losing power steadily

14. Had a history of intermittently strong royal power since Charlemagne. Valois spent Renaissance building royal power- Bourbon planned to continue Strong bureaucracy, invented concept of “divine right of kings” Enhanced legitimacy of royalty all over Europe Absolutism in France

15. Henry IV Louis XIII • 1st king of Bourbon dynasty (r. 1589-1610) determined to strengthen Fr. by strengthening gov’t. • Weakened nobility by not allowing feudal nobility (nobility of sword) to hold bureaucratic positions- created new noble titles (nobility of robe) for those- therefore those nobles loyal to king • R. 1610-1643. Came to throne as child (Henry assassinated by RC fanatic) • Mother regent- but Fr. Ruled by his ministers (Richelieu) Irony- this is when Fr. Is becoming absolutist- but Louis never had strong personal power

16. Cardinal Richelieu • Minister to King 1585-1642. • Built royal power (which he used for himself, in name of king) • Rebuilt royal treasury after 30 years war- created intendant system for collecting revenue • A politique (like Henry IV) he cared more about power of France than personalities or religion. Ran policy during 30 years war- goal was to weaken the Hapsburg dynasty- supported whatever side needed to do that (so Fr. Flip flops around) • Began to push down Huguenots- whom he saw as a threat to power of Fr.- taking their rights to fortify towns and have independent armies

17. Duke of Sully Intendant System • Defined Mercantilism- use colonies to create favorable balance of trade (use colonies for raw materials/markets- don’t allow them an ind. Econ.) • Reformed tax system- encouraged gov’t to improve transportation system to improve trade • Civil servants (not noble- bourgeoisie) who report directly to king. Created greater efficiency in gov’t- more centralized control

18. The Fronde • 1648-1653 • When Louis XIII died- his 5 year old son became king. Another regency made nobles unhappy- led to an uprising (fronde=slingshot) • Nobles demanded parlements w/right to approve taxes. Royal family in danger several times- made a big impression on young Louis XIV • Revolt ended in failure- primarily because competition between noble families prevented them from uniting effectively

19. Cardinal Mazarin • Chief minister while Louis xiv a child (not as ambitious as Richelieu) used power to gain $$ for himself. • Used army against population to ensure prompt/full payment of taxes- made him (and king) unpopular • Louis ended regency in 1652 when he was 14-Mazarin remained an “advisor” until he was 23

20. The Absolute Monarchy of Louis XIV • Ruled 72 years. Dominated Europe- this was the “Age of Louis XIV, the “Sun King” who said “L’etat C’est Moi” • Manipulated affections/ambitions of his courtiers- made sure all gov’t ministers loyal only to him- tolerated no opposition. • Tricky balancing act nobles/peasants/clergy all had to be managed • Golden age of France • Louis Personified the idea that the sovereignty and glory of the nation reside in it’s ruler. French Culture dominated Europe • France had the largest population in Europe- 17 million in 1650- allowed them to keep a big army, and collect a lot of taxes (taille- head tax)

21. Divine Right • Louis XIV was very religious. Believed kings were a race apart from mortal men, appointed and anointed by God. • Kings had to follow God’s laws (man’s, not so much) • Expected to rule for the good of their people, but could not be questioned • Louis believed France existed to serve his glory- that by living the most magnificent life possible- he was making France a better place

22. Building a Centralized Bureaucracy • Richelieu and Mazarin had cleared old nobility out of gov’t but there was still more to be done. Provinces and nobles still had lots of local independent power- and Louis didn’t want that • Continued and expanded intendant system- applied it to regional/local gov’t. • Blocked power of noble assemblies (parlements- which had been created in Fronde) by refusing to allow them to meet- never called Estates General

23. Corvee Forced labor for king. (rather like old feudal obligations to nobles) All peasants required to work 1 month of the year on royal projects. Also allowed peasants to be conscripted into the royal army

24. Versailles • Made it not only his home- but the center of gov’t. Kept nobles and bureaucrats there- so he could keep an eye on them • Often called a “theater state” of formalized ritual. Also a “pleasure prison” for nobility- kept so entertained and frivolous, they didn’t notice they had lost their power

25. Mercantilism Finances were Louis’s weak point- assumed France was a bottomless well of wealth. Appointed Jean Baptist Colbert as finance minister- defined new econ concept Mercantilism: A country’s wealth is based on their supply of gold- so countries must sell more than buy abroad so they maintain gold reserves. Thought France should be self sufficient- led to development of new industries. Colonies helpful to mercantilism as sources of raw materials and markets for manufactured goods.

26. Bullionism Goal of country is as much gold/silver as possible. Originated French trading companies (French East and West India Co) to make $$ and a French Merchant Marine to protect French interests abroad. Sugar of Caribbean and early revenue stream

27. Weaknesses Created poor peasant conditions- and high taxes (nobles don’t pay taxes- Louis wants them happy) Louis keeps a massive army- but virtually no navy- will end up causing colonial issues Huguenots are not allowed to leave France for new world (which would have solved several problems)

28. Court Culture at Versailles • Elaborate entertainments and rituals. Nobles vied for the honor of serving the king (took 3 hrs to get dressed) Everyone engaged in petty competition- nobles busy- and useless. • Most spectacular palace ever (and huge- 15,000 people lived there) Made France center of culture Europe- French became language of sophistication • Original structure built by Louis XIII as a hunting lodge. Architect Louis Louvois “enveloped” the lodge- incorporating it into new palace. Palace 1/3 mile long • Built on swampland (drained- 1400 fountains: gardens by LeNotre) so that Louis could prove his will was greater than even nature’s • 60% of royal revenue EACH YEAR spent on building and maintaining Versailles

29. French Classicism A French twist on the Renaissance ideals of order and symmetry- while keeping much of the lushness and drama of Baroque architecture. (grand and restrained at same time) Nicholas Poussain- master painter of frescos of Versailles Also extended into other arts: plays by Jean Baptiste Moliere and Jean Racine entertained nobles, as did the first French Operas

30. Revocation of Edict of Nantes Henry IV had meant edict as a compromise measure to end conflict- not as a permanent solution. Louis VERY catholic- 1685 ordered revocation- all Huguenots had to be baptized- or exiled. Popular- but probably bad for France in the long run. One king, One law, One faith- Louis felt this was necessary for his absolutist power to be effective.

31. Edict of Fontainebleau Jansenists • The law which revoked Nantes. 200,000 Huguenots left France- most for Holland, England or other colonies of New World (can’t go to French colonies) Cut significantly into French middle classes • Catholics who either sympathized with or had some Calvinist ideas- they got cracked down upon as well

32. Louis XIV’s Wars France has borders with many countries Marquis de Louvois (military advisor to king) said army is the base of the strength of the nation. Increased size of permanent army from 25,000 in 1625 to 100,000 in 1642 to 250,000 in 1659. This was a professional army- with all high ranking officers appointed by the king, uniforms, weapons, and training all standardized

33. Balance of Power System • Alliances of various states (based on their goals) were constantly shifting • The idea of trying to create a balance was new (borrowing from Italy during Ren) • France often won their wars- but still they were really expensive. • William of Orange (Netherlands) most important in blocking ambitions of Louis- but needed many other countries to challenge France’s strength • Start of 2nd 100 years of Conflict between Eng and Fr

34. War of Devolution 1667-1668 Louis invaded Spanish Netherlands and Franche-Comte (Burgundy) saying that Spain had not fully paid the dowry of his wife- so these lands should “devolve” to him. France beat Spain, but had to draw back when England, Sweden, and Dutch joined the Spanish side. Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle- French got to keep towns in Spanish Netherlands

35. Dutch War 1672-78 To break up the Eng/Swed/Dutch alliance the French convinced the Eng to make an econ alliance (Eng/Dutch were trade rivals) Louis personally led the invasion- Dutch opened their dykes- flooded their country. Prussia/Austria joined Dutch side Peace of Nijmegen- France gets Burgundy

36. Nine Years War (War of League of Augsburg) 1688-1697 France moved against the Hapsburg dynasty- (whom they saw as rivals) Invaded Strasbourg & Lorraine- wanted to push the border of France to the Rhine. (and nervous b/c William of Orange just became king of England) Opposed by coalition of Eng, Dutch, Spanish, Swed, Austrian, and German princes

37. War of Spanish Succession 1701-1714 Last Spanish Hapsburg king (Charles II) dies w/o an heir. Louis and Leopold (HRE) both claim throne of France. Charles had left throne to Louis’ grandson (Charles’ nephew) Philip of Anjou. Other nations worry this will give France too much influence. Dutch/Austria/Prussia join against France (Grand Alliance- commanded by Duke of Marlborough- who defeats France at battle of Blenheim) Peace of Utrecht 1714- most important since Peace of Westphalia. Philip of Anjou gets throne- but neither he nor successors can ever claim throne of France. Britain gets Asiento (slave trade) from Spain- as well as Gibraltar and Majorca.

38. Results of Wars • Destroyed the French economy- monster debt- France is bankrupt when Louis XIV dies. • 20% of French population injured/killed in battle- or starved as result of conflicts (seeds of French revolution) • People spend the next 150 years worrying about French aggression

39. Absolutism in Central and Eastern Europe Austria, Prussia, and Russia dominated Central and Eastern Europe All 3 used absolutism- Austria least, Russia most centralized in terms of royal power

40. Different from France • France had strong king, efficient bureaucracy/town councils/free peasants. E. Euro had powerful nobles, and serf population • Austria- After the 30 years war- Hapsburg dynasty had lost most of their western territory- focus on consolidating what they still had. • Prussia was a new nation- a growing power. (they will eventually unite the German states into “Germany”) • Russia was also a new power- newly involved in Europe. • French middle class was coming to dominate econ (overseas trade and manufacturing) the influence of the nobility had been waning since end of 100 years war. • E. Euro had little heritage of centralization, and multi-ethnic, multi-religious empires (not Prussia) and size issues. • Also Faced threat of invasion from outside civ (esp. Ottomans- who attacked Austria multiple times) kept warfare pretty constant

41. Serfdom Serfdom died a natural death in western Europe- but experienced a revival in East during 1300s after population devastation of Black death. By 1500 the vast majority of peasant population fully enserfed- at complete legal mercy of local nobility. Will hold them back during this time of dynamic change- most of their population can’t change Econ stays fully agricultural- with far fewer large towns/cities to promote new ideas

42. Consolidation of Austria • Southeastern territory of HRE: large, un-homogenous empire (Germans, Hungarians, Italians, Serbs, Romanians, Czechs, Slovenes, Croats), held together by Hapsburg Dynasty. Looks impressive on paper- lots of land. Not so impressive in terms of power • Hapsburgs are already a fading dynasty- in 1500 they controlled 2/3 of Euro and new world, now have lost significant territory • No single constitutional system for empire- different parts tied to Emperor with different rules/obligations. Would like to be absolutist (and are in many ways)- but have multiple issues to deal with

43. Leopold I 1658-1705 Fought Louis xiv for Spain in the War of Spanish Succession (lost) Inherited HRE after 30 years war- tried to consolidate royal power. Often blocked by nobles who had significant local authority- and he had no way to block them Devote RC- gave all gov’t positions to Catholics (tricky in an empire that is about 1/3 protestant) Built Schoenbrunn in Vienna to Rival Versailles in France Ottomans attacking- had to give a lot of attention to Hungary which was a battle zone, culminating in the siege of Vienna 1683.

44. Threatened by French expansion- allied with England to check French aggression Father of Maria Theresa (Austria’s most famous ruler) knew he would be leaving throne to a daughter- issued “Pragmatic Sanction” asking rulers of Europe to respect his heir, and saying Hapsburg possession could never again be divided Charles VI 1711-1740

45. Rise of Brandenburg Prussia • Small states in Northern Germany- ruled by Hohenzollern dynasty. Scattered territories at first- will be fused together and become leader of German identity • Brandenburg and Prussia originally separate areas (2 of the “electors” of the HRE) Brandenburg will come to be dominated by Prussia

46. Frederick William- The Great Elector 1640-1688 • Not a king, but created a kingdom. • Will mold Brand-Prussia into an independent (and absolutist) state. 3 disconnected pieces after treaty of Westphalia • Collected taxes, created a professional army, which allowed him to rule w/o support of nobles • Calvinist- but allowed religious tolerance (allow about what was efficient- avoid hassles) • Involved with Sweden/Poland over control of northern territory in Europe • Began to lay groundwork for Prussian militarism- heavy taxes to pay for strong military (2x that of France)

47. Junkers Prussian nobility. Fred. William created tradeoffs to get royal power he was looking for- and keep nobles happy. (for example, he collected the taxes, they had total control over their serfs) Junkers came to dominate officer corps of new military- took oath directly to elector (later king) which gave him power. Unlike many nobles- Prussians were interested in trade/industry (ex. Of Eng and Holland) Did try overseas trade- big failure, lack of ports and navy

48. 1st “king” of Prussia. Got recognition from Hapsburgs in return for his support against Louis xiv in War of League of Augsburg and War of Sp. Succession. Very popular Frederick I 1688-1713

49. Frederick William I 1713-1740 • Often called the “anti” Louis- in that he cared nothing for “fancy” (pawned crown jewels to buy artillery) • Army was of prime importance to the strength of nation (doubled size). Always appeared in uniform (the soldier king) • Canton System: soldiers in regiment all came from same area. • Fought infrequently- frugal, left a full treasury to his son • Goal was to make Prussia the “Sparta of the North”- not a state with an army, but an army with a state. • 80% of gov’t revenue went to military- used deterrence to avoid actual war. • Very efficient bureaucracy- could come from any class, rise based on merit

50. Frederick the Great 1740-1786 • Used army to invaded and capture Silesia- which doubled Prussia’s population, helped est. Prussia as a great power. • Known as an “Enlightened Despot” for his appreciation of new ideas of gov’t, (Voltaire) while keeping reigns for himself. • Mad his dad nuts, loved art, music, poetry etc…