Early Latin America

1. Early Latin America

2. Latin America • The incentive for European explores was wealth, social advancement, adventure, and prestige. In 1492 Columbus reached the Caribbean and forever changed Latin America. By 1493 the first Spanish colony had been established. • The societies first formed by colonists were ones of subjugation however the culture morphed into more complex and diverse societies that would eventually break free from colonial control and fight for their independence by the 18th century.

3. Iberian Kingdoms (Spain and Portugal) • The Spanish and Portuguese were at the frontier of the Mediterranean and as such were in both Christian and Muslim territory. • If you remember your history from Spain. Spain was formed when Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella from Castile wed. The two sought to unite their diverse kingdoms by many reforms including the Reconquista which expelled Moors and Jews from Spain making it one Christian kingdom. In 1492, Granada, the last Muslim kingdom was conquered by Spain during the Reconquista. This unification process gave the monarchs a chance to support another goal: increased access to Asia goods. Thus Columbus was supported in his quest for Asian markets. • After conquest, Spain gave land and labor grants (encomiendas) to good Spaniards willing to fight for the mother country. These plantations would produce raw materials for the mother country. The Spanish and Portuguese were already used to African slavery from their experience in sub-Saharan African trade. There were already African slaves present in the Iberian peninsula! Therefore, this labor system seemed like a good choice once so many of the Native population of the Americas began to die off. • Chronology: Conquest 1492-1570 (set administration and economy of New World) Consolidation/ Maturity 1570-1700 (colonial institutions and society formed) Reform/ Reorganization 18th century (seeds of dissent and revolt)

4. Caribbean Crucible/ Experiment • The Caribbean became the great experiment for the Spanish. They conquered islands and set up colonies and established “relationships” with the native population. They literally tested out various concepts for maintaining rule and gain from the land all that was possible. • 1492 Caribbean and island of Hispaniola discovered, 1493 -1st colony, 1513 Panama and other islands conquered and colonized! • The encomienda system was first established during the Caribbean phase. The Spaniards given these labor grants and could tax or use the natives on the land as workers. This system and contact led to massive population declines which led to the islands becoming something of a colonial backwater until it was seen they would be effective for sugar. Then slaves were brought to the Caribbean to fill the labor demands of the great sugar plantations. • Good things-new markets and towns and cities laid out on nice grid patterns unlike Europe. (like Mohenjo-Daro in India) Spain established a colonial bureaucracy with governors and various institutions! • The Church became very important and priests came over on mission trips: Bartolome de la Casas • By the time that Mexico (Aztecs by Cortes) and Peru (Incas by Pizarro) were conquered the colonial system of Latin America was already established by the Spanish with their exploits in the Caribbean!

5. Paths to Conquest • Spanish conquered 2 continents with millions of people in less than 2 centuries with small forces of only 50-500 Spaniards! (due to disease, working with native allies, better technology, and manipulation) • Crown would give approval for various individual incentives • Mexico/ Aztecs: Cortes 1519 expedition and by 1521 he had killed Moctezuma II and captured Tenochtitlan (Mexico City). By 1535 most of central Mexico was under Spain’s control. (Aztecs had so many enemies due to tribute and human sacrifice) • Peru/ Incas: 1532 Pizarro and by 1533 Cuzco was captured and by 1540 Peru was under Spanish control (Incas were in the middle of a civil war over succession) • In spite Spanish control there were still much resistance to Spanish rule: Buenos Aires! • Franciso Vazquez de Coronado= cities of gold= Kansas (US)

6. “God in the sky, the king of Spain, and me here” • The Spanish crown received 1/5 of all treasure from New Spain (conquered lands). Men got reward on a share basis with men with horses or special skills getting double shares. Many times more reward was based on nepotism with their family and friends getting more of the booty. Many of the conquistadors were in fact not soldiers (female: Ines Suarez in Chile)!!! • By 1570 conquest was coming to an end and bureaucrats, merchants, and colonists came and New Spain became a colony with functioning law courts and viceroys

7. Morality of Conquest • 1548 Juan Gines de Sepulveda: justified subjugation because the Spanish were freeing the natives from their unjust lords and bring them to salvation. Sepulveda argued that the Indians were not human and were people that “were born to serve” • Father Bartolome de Las Casas: former conqueror and encomendero, Dominican priest, and bishop of Chiapas was a critic of Spanish brutality and the opposite opinion to Sepulveda. He believed the natives rational and not ever done harm to Christians so the conquest of their lands was unjustified! • In 1550 the crown suspended all conquests and held a special commission to hear arguments for and against Sepulveda. Debate was mixed because the crown did have reasons to back Casas due to the dangerous ambitions of the Spanish conquerors! Sepulveda’s book was censored, but the conquest continued!!! The period of conquest was really only until about 1570 so the concern literally came too little to late!

8. Destruction of the Americas • Population decline (slavery, disease, cruelty, and destruction of native societies) • Mexico: native population of 25 million in 1519 and by 1580 the population was less than 2 million!!! • Peru: native population of 10 million by 1590 the population was only about 1.5 million!!! • This overall led to the movement away from the encomienda system with its labor grants to taking land from natives and starting haciendas and the mita system • Spaniards would keep aspects of native culture that support them and change those that did not. However, in spite of the Spanish and high decline of power and population the native were able to retain much of their culture and even adopted parts of Spanish culture that served their needs (law) • By the 16th century the Spanish crown banned enslaving native other than POW’s.

9. Mita system: In many native societies commoners had to pay a special tax/ tribute of either labor or goods. • By 1620 the encomienda system was starting to be banned by the crown. This is because the crown was worried about the rise of a new nobility in the Americas. Colonists turned to grants of land rather than grants of labor as the basis of wealth. • The mita system was then used for public projects like buildings and mining (much abuse took place  ) • By 1600 many natives started to flee their villages to escape the mita. They moved to cities which led to the wage labor system developing in the Americas (mines and farms). • Native America culture demonstrated great resiliency in the face of Spanish institutions and forms, adopting and modifying them to indigenous ways!

10. Colonial Economies • Basis for the economy was mining and agriculture! • Mining and silver = of the colonial economy • Real riches came during the post-conquest period of heavy mining!!! • 1545-1565 Mexico and Peru silver discoveries: Potosi (Peru) 80% of all Peru silver with 160,000 workers! 1st: Indian slaves 2nd: Encomienda system 3rd: labor drafts and wage workers • Techniques for mining came 1st from natives and then from Europe. Importance of mercury in mining! Huancavelica, Peru= Mercury find! Mining stimulated other parts of the economy= supported ranches! • Spanish law = subsoil rights to crown, but mines and processing plants were owned by individuals with with 1/5 of production going to the crown

11. Villages/ Shipping • Farming= Spanish ranches • Landownership became very important and they way to riches. Large family estates, haciendas, started to spring up. The aristocracy of New Spain was built on this system. Workers on haciendas were usually natives or mix of Native/ European • America was self-sufficient, but did important luxury items • Spain only allowed the New World to take with it to protective its economy (mercantilism). All New World trade took place through Seville or Cadiz, Spain. There was a board of trade which controlled the trade. Consulado (merchant guild) controlled the goods shipped and sliver received. They keep prices pretty high in the colonies! • Developed convoy system where 2 fleets traveled together to protect themselves against other countries and pirates! The ships were galleons (heavily armed) and met in the Caribbean to exchange goods. There were fortified ports like in Havana, Cuba, coast guard fleets to protect shipping, galleons, and convoys!

12. Spain • Spain used the silver from New Spain to: 1: pay for their many wars! 2: pay for debts 3: pay for Chinese goods like silk • This flooding of silver led to inflation in Spain and in Europe! “the poverty of Spain resulted from the discovery of the Indies” Sancho de Moncada

13. Ruling an Empire • Spain controlled New Spain via bureaucratic system: God King Viceroys • Papal Grant 1494: Treaty of Tordesillas - Brazil to Portugal and rest to Spain. • The King ruled via the Council of the Indies in Spain which gave advice and passed laws for New Spain! • 2 viceroyalities (Mexico City and Lima) with viceroys or high ranking nobles who were the direct representatives of the King and ruled over the lands. The viceroys had military, legislative, and even judicial powers! • The New World was then subdivided into 10 judicial divisions controlled by superior courts (audiencias) staffed by professional royal magistrates who made law and applied it • Local level: royally appointed magistrates applied laws, collected taxes, and assigned work of Natives (bended laws). Below them were many minor officials • Bureaucratic system: core was letrados or university trained lawyers. By 1681 the laws of New Spain were codified (Recopilacion)

14. Catholic Church • Franciscans, Dominicans, and Jesuits carried out many of the conversions of Natives and established Churches • The pope stated the primary reason for Spain’s rule was to Christianize the people so many tried to uphold this • Some priests became experts in native language and histories. Diego de Landa, Bishop of Yucatan admired Maya culture but detested the religion so much that he burned all their ancient books and tortured anyone he suspected of backsliding from Christianity • Soon missionaries led to the formal Catholic Church structure and parishes and bishoprics with even archbishops in large cities! • Church influenced intellectual life via architecture, many books were religious, printing press, and universities started by clergy. Sor Juana Ines de la Cruz- nun who was a poet, thinker, author, and musician. She was celebrated, but eventually her superiors asked her to focus on only spiritual matters

15. Brazil: Plantation Colony • 1500 Pedro Alvares Cabral led an expedition to India and stopped in Brazil. The Portuguese government paid little attention to Brazil other than its dyewood trees. For about 30 years they took no action until the French started to pressure them. They cleared rivals and began settlement. • Minor noble were given land along the coast to colonize and develop (capitaincies). They had feudal like powers but lacked the capital necessary for commercial development. Some had problems with natives, but overall relations were peaceful. • In 1549 king sent a governor general and other officials to create a royal capital in Salvador. Missionaries soon left. By 1600 much native resistance was broken by the military, missionaries, and disease. • Growth of sugar plantations with support of African slaves began

16. Sugar and Slaves • Brazil leading sugar producer. the cane had to be cut and then processed (pressed). The juices were heated to form sugar. The process required much capital and labor! Turned to African slaves. By the end of the 17th century 150,000 slaves were in Brazil that made up ½ of the population of the nation. • Brazil became the 1st great plantation colony and set a model for others • Hierarchy of plantation system: white planter families at the top with African slaves at the bottom. There were mixed people who were artisans or small farmers as well • Portugal also set up the rule of Brazil like Spain with a bureaucratic system with a governor general who ruled from Salvador and local governors (capitaincy). They worked independently and reported directly to a council in Portugal. Royal official were trained in law like Spain. Portugal unlike Spain had posts outside of the Americas in Asia and Africa! Brazil was dependent on Portugal economically and intellectual unlike New Spain! • The Catholic Church sent missionaries, Jesuits. They had cattle and sugar plantation which supported the construction of various churches and schools.

17. Brazil’s Golden Age • For 60 years the Habsburg kings of Spain also ruled Portugal (1580-1640). During this time there was much cooperation between Spain and Portugal as you can imagine. • 1630-1654 as part of a global struggle against Spain, the Dutch seized some of Brazil and its sugar!!! They were expelled the same year • By the 1680’s the English, Dutch, and French had established sugar plantations in the Caribbean which drove down sugar prices and up the price of African slaves • Brazil lost its power over the sugar trade. They began to explore the country more led by Paulisas. They explored and discovered gold mines. This led to a boom and a gold rush! 1735-1760 3 tons of gold a year were mined making Brazil the greatest source of gold in the West. The government collected high taxes to control the population. Native population suffered as they moved deeper into Brazil • Rio do Janeiro grew as the closest city to the mines and ports. It became the capital in 1763! • Again there was a hierarchy (white vs. Africa slaves)

18. Multiracial Societies • Mix of Indians, Europeans, and Africans created hierarchies of masters, servants, and Christians and pagans • Mixed groups came from the sexual exploitation of Indian and African women. With few European women, especially in frontier areas men turned to locals as wives, concubines/ mistresses and servants. This resulted in a large mixed population. Indian and European =mestizo while African and European = mulattos. They were stuck in 2 different worlds and never fully accepted as equals but higher than natives. • Wealth and occupation traditional hierarchies, but in the Americas new distinctions of race and birth became important = sociedad de castas with Europeans at the top and black slaves or natives at the bottom (mixed in the middle) • (new genre of painting just to ID people) • People of mixed origins = castas (kept increasing!) • Some called themselves mesizo b/c they could speak Spanish

19. Whites were always gentleman but not always necessarily wealthy. New distinction within whites, peninsulares (those born in Spain) vs. Creoles (those born in the New World). Were seen suspect by peninsulares b/c of the possibility of mestizo or illegitimacy! Were wealthy and second to peninsulares in rank. Creoles developed their own identities which led to the movement for independence • Gender and age: under authority of father until 25. Marriages arranged with dowry. Wealthy women unmarried young were sent to convents. Widows inherited estates and typically ran them.

20. Reforms of 18th century • New intellectual ideas spread from Europe to the New World. This led to reforms (typically economic, educational, and philosophical). New associations like amigos del pais. • Colonial system had become outdated by the 18th century with Spain’s declining population, increasing debts, wars, and revolts. With France, Holland, and England become increasing rivals. (Protestant vs. Catholic) • Buccaneers started to raid (no allegiance to any country!) and took from Spain • The Caribbean islands were taken by other nations. England took Jamaica in 1654 while France took Hispaniola (Haiti) in 1697. (Other island fell too and many turned to sugar) • Economy began to fail with fleets not coming as much with silver payments declining. More self-sufficient • Politically, government got weaker with more local aristocrats governing (corruption)

21. Spain and economy • 1702-1713 King Charles II of Spain died without a heir. Nations started fighting for Spain and claiming the right to rule. Two big contenders were Philip of Anjou of the Bourbon family (grandson of Louis XIV) and the son of the king of Austria. The treaty of Utrecht (1713) ended the war with Philip of Anjou on the throne of Spain. Legally, Philip opened up Spain to French and even to some extend English trade (in Seville)! • Groups or institutions that opposed these reforms were punished or expelled like the Jesuits in 1767 (1759 from Portugal) • Spanish Bourbon monarchs like Charles III worked to reform Spain to make the state more efficient and stronger and better able to direct the economy. French bureaucratic models were followed and taxation tightened. New viceroyalties were created with royal investigators like Jose de Galvez who looked for abuses and then helped to reform them. Spain moved to end the corregidores (local magistrates) and replaced by the French system of intendants. Due to loses by other nations like England ( 7 Years War Spain allied with France) with Florida and Cuba Spain began to establish regular troops with even local militia • Bourbon reforms led to government monopolies of industries like tobacco and gunpowder. Companies were given granted if they developed the economies of the regions they working within

22. These liberal regulations led to trade expanding in the Caribbean • Negative side was that as goods from Europe became cheaper they competed with locally produced goods and many natives were unable to compete with the imports • Short term reforms improved the Spanish government while the long term effects created dissatisfaction of elites in the Americas

23. Pombal and Brazil • Marquis of Pombal was the prime minister and led the reforms of Brazil along English techniques (expel Jesuits, no contraband, smuggling, no tax evasion, monopoly companies formed, new crops introduced, banned slavery in Portugal so more could be imported to Brazil! Reforms to strengthen the mother country like Spain. • Pombal’s reforms led to a 20 year boom in Brazil

24. Reforms, Reactions, Revolts • Rapid population growth which led to more development and greater demand for American products (18th century boom) • Changing government including tighter tax collecting, reformist policies, and taking powers from people led to increasing revolts like the Comunero Revolt of 1781 in Columbia occurred and were successful. A royal army and viceroy were overthrown and the rebels almost took the entire capital! • Peru-TupacAmaru led uprisings until his death • Brazil- independence conspiracy and Tiradentes hanged! • The various colonies had many similar complaints by being controlled and limited by their mother countries. The 18th century economic boom led to confidence as colonists sought to free themselves from rule. Yet the racial and social division of that society kept them divided and undercut their revolutionary movements.

25. Latin Civilization and the World • Within 3 centuries Spain and Portugal created very large American empires that supported them and were the basis of their power. They expanded the world economy and shipped mineral/ metals and crops. The colonies adopted the mother countries ways and policies / government were established to benefit the mother country not the colonies! This led to 19th century revolutionary movements • Colonies were multiethnic and multiracial drawing on native, African, and European ideas • Latin America although homogenous was quite diverse • Russian and Iberian expansion similar (maritime vs. overland)