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1.
1-1 Chapter 1An Introduction to the Human Body Anatomy
science of structure
relationships revealed by dissection (cutting apart)
imaging techniques
Physiology
science of body functions
normal adult physiology studied in this text
some genetic variations described
Subdivisions of A & P
2.
1-2 Levels of Organization Chemical
Cellular
Tissue
Organs
System Level
Organismic Level
3.
1-3 Levels of Structural Organization Chemical Level
atomic and molecular level
Cellular level
smallest living unit of the body
Tissue level
group of cells and the materials surrounding them that work together on one task
4 basic tissue types
epithelium, muscle, connective tissue, and nerve
4.
1-4 Levels of Structural Organization Organ level
grouping of 2 or more tissue types into a recognizable structure with a specific function.
Organ system
collection of related organs with a common function
sometimes an organ is part of more than one system
Organismic level
one living individual.
5.
1-5 Interaction of Organ Systems All major body systems will be examined
Interaction of different systems of the body
skin produces vitamin D needed for calcium absorption and bone growth
bone marrow produces cells which help the skin resist infection.
6.
1-6 Life Processes Metabolism = sum of all chemical processes
breakdown of large molecules into small
building new structural components (proteins)
providing chemical energy for cells
Responsiveness
detect & respond to changes in internal or external environment
some typical responses
muscle contraction, electrical signals, hormone or glandular secretion
7.
1-7 Life Processes Movement at any structural level
the body, an organ, a cell or cell component
Growth
increase in number or size of cells or the material found between cells
Differentiation
specialization of cells for a specific function
stem cells give rise to cells that specialize
Reproduction
formation of new cells or new individuals
8.
1-8 Homeostatis Maintaining the internal environment within physiological limits
Example
blood glucose level is kept within narrow range 70-110/100ml
9.
1-9 Control of Homeostasis Homeostasis is continually being disrupted by
external stimuli or
intense heat, cold , and lack of oxygen
internal stimuli
psychological stresses
exercise
Disruptions are usually mild & temporary
If homeostasis is not maintained, death may result
10.
1-10 Neural and Endocrine Controls Process of maintaining a controlled condition
sensory receptors detect change in a monitored variable
nervous system and/or endocrine system responds
Example: control of blood gas level
exercise increases blood CO2 levels
sensory receptors detect change
nervous system increases heart and breathing rates to remove excess CO2
adrenal gland releases epinephrine to increase heart and breathing rates
11.
1-11 Components of Feedback Loop Receptor
monitors a controlled condition
Control center
determines next action
Effector
receives directions from the control center
produces a response that changes the controlled condition
12.
1-12 Negative & Positive Feedback Loops Negative feedback loop
original stimulus reversed
most feedback systems in the body are negative
used for conditions that need frequent adjustment
body temperature, blood sugar levels, blood pressure
Positive feedback loop
original stimulus intensified
seen during normal childbirth
13.
1-13 Homeostasis of Blood Pressure Pressure receptors in walls of certain arteries detect an increase in BP
blood Pressure = force of blood on walls of vessels
Brain receives input and signals heart and blood vessels
Heart rate slows and arterioles dilate (increase in diameter)
BP returns to normal
14.
1-14 Positive Feedback during Childbirth Stretch receptors in walls of uterus send signals to the brain
Brain releases hormone (oxytocin) into bloodstream
Uterine smooth muscle contracts more forcefully
More stretch, more hormone, more contraction etc.
Cycle ends with birth of the baby & decrease in stretch
15.
1-15 Homeostatic Imbalances Disorder = abnormality of function
Disease = homeostatic imbalance with distinct
symptoms---changes in body function felt by the patient such as nausea and
signs----changes in body function that can be observed by the doctor such as rash or fever
Diagnosis---skill of distinguishing one disease from another
Epidemiology----how disease is transmitted
Pharmacology --- how drugs used to treat disease
16.
1-16 Basic Anatomical Terminology Anatomical position
Regions of the body
Anatomical planes, sections and directional terms
17.
1-17 Anatomical Position Standardized position from which to describe directional terms
standing upright
facing the observer, head level
eyes facing forward
feet flat on the floor
arms at the sides
palms turned forward
Prone position = lying face down
Supine position = lying face up
18.
1-18 Planes and Sections A plane is an imaginary flat surface that passes through the body.
A section is one of the 2 surfaces (pieces) that results when the body is cut by a plane passing through it.
19.
1-19 Sagittal Plane Sagittal plane
divides the body or an organ into left and right sides
Midsagittal plane
produces equal halves
20.
1-20 Other Planes and Sections Frontal or coronal plane
divides the body or an organ into front (anterior) and back (posterior) portions
Transverse(cross-sectional) or horizontal plane
divides the body or an organ into upper (superior) or lower (inferior) portions
21.
1-21 Planes and Sections of the Brain(3-D anatomical relationships revealed)
Horizontal Plane
Frontal Plane
Midsagittal Plane
22.
1-22 Major Directional Terms
23.
1-23 Superior or Inferior Superior
towards the head
The eyes are superior to the mouth.
Inferior
away from the head
The stomach is inferior to the heart.
24.
1-24 Dorsal or Posterior
at the back of the body
The brain is posterior to the forehead.
Ventral or Anterior
at the front of the body
The sternum is anterior to the heart.
Dorsal or Ventral
25.
1-25 Medial or Lateral Medial
nearer to the midline of the body
The heart lies medial to the lungs.
Lateral
farther from the midline of the body
The thumb is on the lateral side of the hand.
26.
1-26 Proximal or Distal Proximal
nearer to the attachment of the limb to the trunk
The knee is proximal to the ankle.
Distal
farther from the attachment of the limb to the trunk
The wrist is distal to the elbow.
27.
1-27 Dorsal Body Cavity Near dorsal surface of body
2 subdivisions
cranial cavity
holds the brain
formed by skull
vertebral or spinal canal
contains the spinal cord
formed by vertebral column
28.
1-28 Ventral Body Cavity Near ventral surface of body
2 subdivisions
thoracic cavity above diaphragm
abdominopelvic cavity below diaphragm
Diaphragm = large, dome-shaped muscle
Organs called viscera
29.
1-29 Abdominopelvic Cavity Inferior portion of ventral body cavity below diaphragm
Encircled by abdominal wall, bones & muscles of pelvis
30.
1-30 Medical Imaging Allows visualization of structures without surgery
Useful for confirmation of diagnosis
Examples of imaging techniques
31.
1-31 Conventional Radiography A single burst of xrays
Produces 2-D image on film
Known as radiography or xray
Poor resolution of soft tissues
Major use is osteology
32.
1-32 Computed Tomography (CT Scan) Moving x-ray beam
Image produced on a video monitor of a cross-section through body
Computer generated image reveals more soft tissue detail
kidney & gallstones
Multiple scans used to build 3D views
33.
1-33 Angiogram Radiopaque material injected into blood vessels
Before and after images compared with a computer program
Image of blood vessel is shown on a monitor
34.
1-34 Ultrasound (US) High-frequency sound waves emitted by hand-held device
Safe, noninvasive & painless
Image or sonogram is displayed on video monitor
Used for fetal ultrasound and examination of pelvic & abdominal organs, heart and blood flow through blood vessels
35.
1-35 Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) Body exposed to high-energy magnetic field
Protons align themselves relative to magnetic field
Pulse of radiowaves used to generate an image on video monitor
Can not use on patient with metal in their body
Reveals fine detail within soft tissues
36.
1-36 Positron Emission Tomography(PET) Substance that emits positively charged particles is injected into body
Collision with negatively charged electrons in tissues releases gamma rays
Camera detects gamma rays & computer generates image displayed on monitor