Cognition, Language and Creativity

1. Cognition, Language and Creativity Chapter 10 McElhaney

2. Basic Questions What is thought? Function of thought? What are the ingredients of thought? (Components: reasoning, problem solving, decision making…) How is language acquired and used? (language has similar mental processes to cognition)

3. Basics • Language is used to encode information • Animals are capable of rudimentary language use only with aid of human intervention. • Problem solving = acquired knowledge + strategies • Creative Thinking= is novel, new, divergent

4. What is thinking? • Cognition- mentally processing information • The manipulation of mental representations • Cognitive Psychology: = the study of mental processes by which the information humans receive from their environment is modified, made meaningful, stored, retrieved, used and communicated to others.  • Thinking is an internal representation (mental expression) of a problem or situation

5. Info Processing Model: • Information= sensations via receptors (auditory, kinesthetic, visual, olfactory, gustation) • Information is perceived and recognized (perceptual processing) • Info is elaborated (connected to stored knowledge (LTM) • Decide what to do with info • Store it or take action –(make a plan) • Act on the plan

6. Mental Representations: Ingredients of thought How do we mentally represent information? Mental Models Mental Imagery Cognitive Maps Concepts Propositions Schemas Scripts

7. People use Visual Images Auditory Images Synesthesia: images cross normal sensory barriers Colors, tastes, odors People use imagery: Decision making- problem solving Change Feelings <thinking> To improve skill and prepare for action To aid memory Mental Imagery

8. Mental Models • Are representations of particular situations or arrangements of objects • Mental representations can be 3 dimensional • 3 dimensional models • Pg. 290 Images + Cognitive Maps: • We think in mental representations • Can be manipulated- similar to real objects • Cognitive map: • Mental Image of scenes- locations

9. Minds Eye • 1. Brain areas where memories are stored • 2. Send signals back to visual cortex • 3. Where images are created

10. Using Mental Images • We use stored images • Info from memory is used • We apply past experiences to problem solving • Created images are- ideas/images not remembered but created • Artists see the image and it is created

11. Kinesthetic Imagery • Muscular sensations • Important in music, sports, and dance • Micro-movements= occur in connection between muscle activity + thinking

12. Basic Units of Thought • Images • Concepts: Categories of objects, events or ideas with common properties or features that are shared by members of the category

13. Concepts • Idea that represents a class of objects or events • Very abstract • Identify features of objects • Conceptual thinking is the ability to classify into categories

14. Concept Formation • Concepts are learned • Process of classifying information into meaningful categories • Concepts are identified by: • Positive Instances vs. Negative Instances • Items are classified as either part of a concept or not.

15. Conceptual Rules • Help us decipher– • Help us order concepts

16. Conjunction Concepts- Must have 2 or more features “In conjunction with” Relational Concepts- With principal definitions of concept based on relations Example: Sister and brother Below and under Disjunctive Concepts Concepts must have one of several possible features “It must have this feature or that feature” Either or qualities Formal Concept: clearly defined by properties members vs. non-members Natural Concepts Concepts have no fixed or set defining features- but have typical (prototypical) characteristics Resembles but not exact Prototype- a natural concept that possesses all or most characteristic features A combination of properties Most thinking uses natural concepts Can be: Concreteobject categories house-bird Abstract concepts honesty-justice Temporary goal oriented concepts “Stuff for a trip” Types of Concepts

17. Types of Concepts 2 • Connotative Meaning: emotional or personal meaning/understanding • Connote = Ideas about, signifies • Measured by Semantic Differential- qualitative rating • Based on a scale • DenotiveMeaning- word definition, is exact definition • Propositions (type of concept) • A mental representation that expresses a relationship between concepts • Can be true or false • Reflect- networks of associations • Schemas: • Complex mental representation • Close associations=Schema: Networks • They are generalizations we develop about categories of objects, places or events • Builds on expectations

18. Faulty Concepts • Are understandings that lead to thinking errors. • Example= Social Stereotypes • Over simplified (beliefs or) concepts of people • One dimensional thought

19. Language • Language: words symbols + rules for combining them • Thinking relies heavily on language • Words encode (translate) the world into symbols. • Semantics = study of the meaning of words • Words get meaning from Context • Semantics affect thinking when words we use alter meaning

20. Skinner: Behaviorist: Operant Learning of language Association- sights of things with sounds of words Imitation- of words and syntax modeled by others Reinforcement- with success and smiles “The vocal musculature became susceptible to operant conditioning” Chomsky = inborn universal grammar Behavior explanation is over simplified Language naturally occurs But still needs nurture Thinking process Children learn their environment’s language Children begin using morphemes in a predictable order Your ability to learn language is inborn. Debate over Acquisition of Language

21. Chomsky 2 • All human languages have the same grammatical building blocks = Universal Grammar • Nouns, verbs, subjects, objects, negations, questions • Our Brains are pre-wired for language • We all start speaking in nouns, • It happens naturally • Or brains have a language acquisition device • But need to be exposed to language

22. Phonemes: basic speech sounds Morphemes: sounds with meaning “sounds collected into meaningful units” Grammar: set of rules for making sounds into words and sentences Syntax: rules for word order “man bites dog” Chomsky- Unspoken rules we use to change ideas into sentences Universal core patterns: Past Passive Negative Question Structure of Language

23. We can generate new thoughts or ideas Language Is not limited to speech American Sign Language Language is productive Gestural Language

24. No evidence of formal language Only simple messages Examples: Vicki Washoe chimp (the Gardners) Used sign language 240 signs 6 word sentences Sarah Chimp Used magnetic symbols Learned to question Label things Classify objects, color, size, and shape Kanzi Chimp Found chimps able to produce language based on Lexigrams- machine buttons + symbols primitive sentences Animal Languages?

25. Criticism of Animal Language • People say it doesn’t work • Simply an operant response to get food • Counter response- said yes they use symbols hold conversations • Patterns + Similar to conversations like young children

26. Reasoning Reasoningis the process through which we generate and evaluate arguments and reach conclusions”

27. Problem Solving • Mechanical solutions • Trial and error • Rote- thinking is guided by a learned set of rules • Solving by Understanding • Deeper Comprehension of a problem (helps solving) • Discover general properties of a solution • General solution identifies the requirements for success • Proposes a series of functional (workable) solutions • Then chooses the best one

28. Algorithm A step-by-step procedure that guarantees a solution Heuristics A strategy for identifying and evaluating problems and solutions Then random search limiting the number of alternatives then apply trial and error “car doesn’t start check the battery” Algorithms and Heuristics

29. Heuristics Anchoring Heuristic- Estimating the probability of an event not starting from scratch but  by adjusting an earlier estimate Being anchored by earlier/original judgement Example-Not able to change much about first impressions Representative Heuristics Rejecting probability  Making a choice or decision based on belief or representation of a category... Kind of like a ?  "the degree to which [an event] (i) is similar in essential characteristics to its parent population, and (ii) reflects the salient features of the process by which it is generated".[ Availability Heuristic- Judging the likelihood of an event or the correctness of a hypothesis based on how easily the hypothesis or examples of the event come to mind... We tend to associate things that are most present in our mind Results from biased judgment

30. IDEAL Strategy • Heuristic=have a general thinking strategy • Bransford- researcher, 5 steps • Identify • Define- problem clearly • Explore- possible solutions + relevant knowledge • Act-= try a possible solution or hypothesis • Look at results and learn from results

31. Insight • Involves selective encoding- selecting infor that is relevant to a problem • Ignore distractions • Selective Combinations • Bringing together seemingly unrelated bits of useful information • Selective Comparison • Ability to compare new problems with old info or with problems already solved

32. Insightful Solutions • Insight = seeing a solution • Rapid and clear info-ideas about a topic • Create insight by reorganizing a problem • See it in new ways and then see new solutions

33. Barrier to Problem Solving:Fixation • Characterized by- becoming blind to alternatives • Tendency to be “hung up” on wrong solutions • Caused by unnecessary restrictions on our thinking

34. Restricted Thinking • Functional Fixedness- not able to think outside the box • Inability to see new uses for familiar objects • or things we use in a particular way • Confirmation Bias • is a tendency of people to favor information that confirms their beliefs 

35. Other Barriers • Emotional Barrier • Inhibition, fear of making a fool of oneself • Fear of making a mistake • Inability to tolerate ambiguity • Excessive self-criticism • Cultural Barriers • Cultural views prevent creative problem solving • Learned Barriers- • Conventions about user- • Traditional views limit possibilities • Perceptual Barriers • Habits lead to lack of solutions • Problem identifying elements of a problem

36. Creative Thinking Fluency- total # of suggestions Flexibility- # of times you shift from one class of possible uses to another Originality- refers to how novel or unusual the suggestions are.

37. Creative Thinking • Must be practical or sensible • Inductive Thinking • Specific to the facts or general principles • Deductive Thinking • Going from general principles to specific principles • the process of following a set of rigorous procedures to reach valid or correct conclusions. • It takes a general rule and applies it to deduce conclusions about specific cases. • Logical Thinking • Proceeding from given information to new conclusions on the bais of explicit rules • Conclusions base don formal principals of reasonsing • Illogical • Intuitive, associated or personal

38. Creative Thinking • Divergent Thinking(measure of Creativity) • New answers • Many possibilities are developed from one strategic point • Convergent Thinking • Lines of thought converge on the correct answer

39. Creativity: Personality Characteristics of Creative People: Expertise- in the field of endeavor, tied to what a person has learned A set of Creative Skills- hard work, persistence, divergent thinking, ability to take risks Motivation- internal motivation (seems not external example $)

40. Test of Creativity • Unusual Uses Test • Person tries to think of as many possible uses for some object • Consequences Test • Goal to list the consequences that would follow a basic change • Anagram Test • Use a word • Find as many new words as possible by rearranging the letters

41. Stages of Creative Thought • Orientation • Define problems, Identify dimensions • Preparation • Collect and use as much info as possible • Incubation • Time is needed to process and think • Illumination • Insight gained “light bulb” goes off • Verification

42. Creativity Killers • Working under surveillance • Having choices restricted by rules • Working only for a good evaluation (to avoid a bad one) • Working to get more money • Time pressure kills creativity