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4 t h Edition Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning

CABI TOURISM TEXTS. 4 t h Edition Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning. A. J. Veal. COMPLEMENTARY TEACHING MATERIALS. Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning, 4 th Edition. CHAPTER 3. Wants , Needs, Demand , Benefits and Participation.

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4 t h Edition Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning

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  1. CABI TOURISM TEXTS 4th EditionLeisure, Sport andTourism, Politics,Policy and Planning A. J. Veal COMPLEMENTARY TEACHING MATERIALS

  2. Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning, 4th Edition CHAPTER 3 Wants, Needs, Demand, Benefits and Participation Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning, 4th edition, Veal, 2017, CABI Tourism Texts

  3. Outline Introduction Introduction Wants and needs Conceptualizations of need Implications for public policy Need and leisure/tourism motivation Wants Demand Definition and theory Demand and the public sector Researching/modelling demand/supply Critics Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning, 4th edition, Veal, 2017, CABI Tourism Texts

  4. Outline (cont’d) Benefits-based management approach Benefits Economic approach Measuring participation Participation Implications for public policy Opportunities Other concepts Collective consumption Quality of life Well-being Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning, 4th edition, Veal, 2017, CABI Tourism Texts

  5. Needs: official statements (Box 3.1) • UK: 2002: Planning for Open Space, Sport and Recreation: • to ensure effective planning for open space, sport and recreation it is essential that the needs of local communities are known. Local authorities should undertake robust assessments of the existing and future needs of their communities for open space, sports and recreational facilities. (Office of the Deputy Prime Minister, 2002: 2) • Australia: 2004: NSW cultural planning guidelines: • cultural amenities can be seen not as something remote or apart from everyday life but fundamental to people’s needs. (NSW Ministry for Arts and Dept of Local Gov’t, 2002: 2) Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning, 4th edition, Veal, 2017, CABI Tourism Texts

  6. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (1954) • Five types of ‘need’ arranged in a hierarchy of ‘prepotency’ (attended to in sequence): • Physiological needs • Safety needs • Affiliation needs • Esteem needs • Self-actualization needs • N.B. sometimes portrayed using a triangular diagram – but Maslow did not use a triangle Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning, 4th edition, Veal, 2017, CABI Tourism Texts

  7. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (cont’d) • All desires? No. Hierarchy applies to ‘basically important needs’. Definition: • thwarting of unimportant desires produces no psychopathological results: thwarting of basically important needs does produce such results • Hence the harm prevention concept of need • Does leisure/sport/tourism activity prevent harm? • N.B. unimportant desires can be seen as wants. Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning, 4th edition, Veal, 2017, CABI Tourism Texts

  8. Maslow (cont’d): tourism/marketing (Fig. 3.1) • A different interpretation of Maslow and wants/needs Maslow (as above) Tourism/marketing approach Desires • Needs: • physiological • safety • affiliation • esteem • self-actualization Wants: - various goods and services • Needs: • physiological • safety • affiliation • esteem • self-actualization Unimportant desires = wants Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning, 4th edition, Veal, 2017, CABI Tourism Texts

  9. Need and: optimal arousal and incongruity • Iso-Ahola (US psychologist): rejects Maslow’s hierarchy, but: • Criterion for need is optimal arousal and incongruity in life, i.e.: • ‘too little or too much stimulation is damaging to an individual, physiologically and psychologically’ • So: accepts harm prevention concept of need • N.B. similar to Csikzentmihalyi’s concept of ‘flow’ Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning, 4th edition, Veal, 2017, CABI Tourism Texts

  10. Need and: leisure satisfaction scales • LST participants asked to indicate satisfaction related to aspects of the experience – e.g. excitement, fitness, relaxation • LST experience assumed to have satisfied needs • so no difference between needs and wants • Level of satisfaction indicated using Likert scales • Examples of scales (all USA): • Leisure Satisfaction Scale (LSS) (Beard and Ragheb) • Paragraphs About Leisure (PAL) (Tinsley et al. ) • Recreation Experience Preference (REP) scale (Driver et al.) Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning, 4th edition, Veal, 2017, CABI Tourism Texts

  11. Need: Bradshaw/Mercer typology • 1. Expressed need • current consumption + waiting lists etc. • 2. Felt need • what people say they need • 3. Comparative need • comparing persons, groups or areas • 4. Normative need • determined by ‘experts’ Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning, 4th edition, Veal, 2017, CABI Tourism Texts

  12. Bradshaw/Mercer: issues • Expressed need: • what people currently do – so, includes wants and needs • Felt need: • typically identified by survey: people asked what they would like to do not what they need: therefore, includes wants and needs • Comparative need: • comparing persons, groups or areas – but what criteria are used? • Normative need: • determined by ‘experts’ – but what criteria are used? • Issue: • four types of need or four ways of measuring need? • Use in planning/policymaking: • how to reconcile/evaluate four different measurements of need Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning, 4th edition, Veal, 2017, CABI Tourism Texts

  13. Universal needs • Maslow = ‘universal’; Bradshaw/Mercer = ‘relative’ • Universal approach attempts to list needs applicable to all humans: • Doyal and Gough do not include leisure • Max-Neef includes leisure • both use ‘harm prevention’ definition of need Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning, 4th edition, Veal, 2017, CABI Tourism Texts

  14. False needs • Neo-Marxist concept • ‘Needs’ generated by advertising etc. Herbert Marcuse: False needs are ... those [needs] which are superimposed upon the individual by particular social interests in his repression: the needs which perpetuate toil, aggressiveness, misery and injustice... Most of the prevailing needs to relax, to have fun, to behave and consume in accordance with the advertisements, to love and hate what others love and hate, belong in this category of false needs. (Marcuse, 1964: 5) Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning, 4th edition, Veal, 2017, CABI Tourism Texts

  15. Needs and socio-economic deprivation • Relatively deprived socio-economic groups are deemed to be generally in need. • Often wide range of (local council) services give priority to such deprived groups. • Question: • For people with low income/unemployed, poor housing, etc., are leisure, sport etc. services a priority? Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning, 4th edition, Veal, 2017, CABI Tourism Texts

  16. Need: implications for public policy • Using harm prevention (Maslow) definition of need: • if being deprived of LST is harmful, public sector has obligations to ensure needs are met • Problem of who makes the assessment of need/harm • Leisure satisfaction scales + tourism marketing conceptualization of need: • all wants/desires are ‘needs’ • no help in determining public policy on basis of need • Bradshaw/Mercer typology: • different measurements may be useful, but • fails to distinguish between needs/wants Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning, 4th edition, Veal, 2017, CABI Tourism Texts

  17. Needs: leisure/tourism motivation and marketing (Fig. 3.2) Awareness Wants Needs Satisfy Motivation Marketing Suggests Objectives (Mill and Morrison, 2006)

  18. Wants • Three possibilities: (a) Needs = a subset of wants (b) Needs and wants are separate and different (c) Needs and wants are the same/interchangeable • (a) is most logical, but complex • (b) is simpler, so adopted in this book • (c ) often used in the literature Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning, 4th edition, Veal, 2017, CABI Tourism Texts

  19. Demand • Economic concept • Amount of a good/service which people will purchase at various prices • = a relationship • Demand/supply theory in economics (‘Economics 101’) Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning, 4th edition, Veal, 2017, CABI Tourism Texts

  20. Demand curve (Fig. 3.3) Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning, 4th edition, Veal, 2017, CABI Tourism Texts

  21. Price elasticity (Fig. 3.4) Elastic: demand responds more to price Inelastic: demand responds less to price Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning, 4th edition, Veal, 2017, CABI Tourism Texts

  22. Consumer surplus (Fig. 3.5) Some purchasers would have been prepared to pay more than P Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning, 4th edition, Veal, 2017, CABI Tourism Texts

  23. Demand/supply interaction (Fig. 3.6) Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning, 4th edition, Veal, 2017, CABI Tourism Texts

  24. Demand curve with zero price (Fig. 3.7) • Q1 = total demand at price zero • Actual provision may be : • Less (C2) – over-use/crowding/waiting lists • More (C1) – under-use Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning, 4th edition, Veal, 2017, CABI Tourism Texts

  25. Researching demand/supply in leisure, sport and tourism contexts • How to establish a demand curve when price is zero or subsidized • Methods (see Chapter 11): • willingness-to-pay method • travel cost or Clawson method Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning, 4th edition, Veal, 2017, CABI Tourism Texts

  26. Modelling • Quantified models to predict demand in different circumstances • Include not just price but also: • consumer/participant characteristics • supply variables, e.g. in addition to prices: • location • transport access • size • quality Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning, 4th edition, Veal, 2017, CABI Tourism Texts

  27. Demand: critics • ‘Emphasis on price excludes zero price or subsidized services’: wrong (see, e.g., Fig. 3.7) • ‘Demand = free market’: wrong • ‘Does not deal with unmet demand’: wrong • ‘Means ‘more of the same’: not necessarily • ‘Does not reveal motivation’: but does reveal preferences • ‘Ignores underprivileged’: wrong – see models • ‘Ignores quality of provision’: wrong – see models Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning, 4th edition, Veal, 2017, CABI Tourism Texts

  28. Benefits • Widely accepted principle: public provision should generate net benefits • Government statements • Alternative approaches: • benefits approach to leisure • economic approach Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning, 4th edition, Veal, 2017, CABI Tourism Texts

  29. Benefits: official statements (Box 3.2) 2002, UK: Game Plan: a strategy for delivering Government’s sport and physical activity objectives(from Chapter 2: Why do we care? Benefits and the role for government): • Why should government invest in sport and physical activity? Because they have a major part to play in promoting health… and can contribute to improved educational outcomes, reduced crime and greater social inclusion: • The benefits of physical activity on health are clear, well evidenced and widely accepted… • …there is some evidence that sport and physical activity can benefit education. … • The role of sport in generating a 'feelgood factor' through international sporting success also appears to be significant (if difficult to quantify). (DCMS/Strategy Unit, 2002, p. 42) Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning, 4th edition, Veal, 2017, CABI Tourism Texts

  30. Benefits: official statements (cont’d) 2008, USA:Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans • Most health benefits occur with at least 150 minutes [2 hours and 30 minutes] a week of moderate-intensity physical activity, such as brisk walking… (US Dept of Health & Human Services, 2008: vi) Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning, 4th edition, Veal, 2017, CABI Tourism Texts

  31. Benefits: official statements (cont’d) 2008, Australia: Australian Sport: Emerging Challenges, New Directions • Sport has a range of benefits…At the community level, sport brings people together, breaks down barriers and unites those who may have nothing else in common…[it] transcend[s] race, religion, gender and creed…[it is] a tool of social cohesion. • At the individual level…involvement in sport from an early age can help build character and discipline in children…The precepts of hard work, self-esteem, good health, discipline and team work that are necessary to achieve success in any sporting endeavour can be translated to everyday life. • Sport is also a powerful tool in building the health of the nation. (Australian Government, 2008: 2–3) Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning, 4th edition, Veal, 2017, CABI Tourism Texts

  32. Benefits approach to leisure • Developed: Bev Driver and colleagues, US Forest Service • Various names: • Benefits-Based Management (BBM) • latest: Outcomes-Focused Management (OFM) • Based on ‘Recreation opportunity production process’ (Fig. 3.8) Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning, 4th edition, Veal, 2017, CABI Tourism Texts

  33. Benefits approach (cont’d) • Based on data from surveys of existing visitors to natural areas and other stakeholders • Benefits assessed by Likert-type scales • (similar to Leisure Satisfaction scales – see need, above) • Numerous benefits assessed (Table 3.2) • experiential benefits to visitors • benefits to community residents • other health, economic and environmental benefits • negative outcomes (stress, crime, pollution, etc.) • Large data collection requirements • Analysis: see Chapter 7 Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning, 4th edition, Veal, 2017, CABI Tourism Texts

  34. Benefits: economic approach • Cost–benefit analysis • Measures financial expenditure/income, plus: • ‘public goods’ effects (see Ch. 5) • ‘externalities’ effects (see Ch. 5) • equity/rights effects (see Ch. 4) • Large data collection/analysis requirements • Analysis: see Chapter 12 Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning, 4th edition, Veal, 2017, CABI Tourism Texts

  35. Participation • Definition: people taking part in leisure, sport and tourism activities • Measurement:participation can be measured in a variety of ways • Policy: governments beginning to consider participation levels as a focus for policy Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning, 4th edition, Veal, 2017, CABI Tourism Texts

  36. Participation: official statements (Box 3.3) 2002: Britain: DCMS/Strategy Unit, Game Plan • Our vision is...to increase significantly levels of sport and physical activity, particularly among disadvantaged groups… • Participation levels need to be raised for the whole population; but interventions should focus on the most economically disadvantaged groups, and within those especially on young people, women and older people. • The Government’s overall objective is to increase the participation levels of all people, to ensure that society generally achieves the minimum levels of physical activity necessary for maintaining health. (DCMS/ Strategy Unit, 2002) Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning, 4th edition, Veal, 2017, CABI Tourism Texts

  37. Participation: official statements (Box 3.3) 2007: Australia: NSW Department of the Arts, Sport and Recreation, Corporate Plan • Corporate Result 2: Performance measures: increases per year as follows: • 1% in adult participation in cultural activities • 1% in no. of children involved in arts and cultural activities • 1% in general participation of adults in sport and physical activity • 1% in participation of adults in sport/active recreation 3+ times a week • 3% in participation of children in organised sports • 1% in participation of women in organised sport (NSW Department of the Arts, Sport and Recreation, 2007) Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning, 4th edition, Veal, 2017, CABI Tourism Texts

  38. Measuring participation(Table 3.3) Slightly different terminology used in leisure/sport vs tourism Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning, 4th edition, Veal, 2017, CABI Tourism Texts

  39. Measuring participation: leisure/sport A (Table 3.3) • A. Leisure: participation rate • Definition: • % of the resident population engaging in an activity; • % of the population engaging at a specified level (health-related) • Example: • 6% of adult population went swimming at least once a week • 40% of adult population engaged in moderate-intensity physical activity for 30 mins, 4+ days/week Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning, 4th edition, Veal, 2017, CABI Tourism Texts

  40. Measuring participation: leisure/sportB (Table 3.3) • B. Market/participants • Definition: • number of people who engage in an activity • Relationship: • A x population or C ÷ mean frequency • Examples: • 20,000 residents of Area X went swimming at least once a week Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning, 4th edition, Veal, 2017, CABI Tourism Texts

  41. Measuring participation: leisure/sport C(Table 3.3) • C. Visits (volume) • Definition: • the number of engagements (episode/visit/ session) in an activity in a defined (planning) area • Relationship: • B x mean frequency • Examples: • there were 1.2 million visits to swimming pools in Area X (1 million by residents) Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning, 4th edition, Veal, 2017, CABI Tourism Texts

  42. Measuring participation: leisure/sport D(Table 3.3) • D. Time spent • Definition: • Time spent on an activity/group of activities • Relationship: C x time per (a) visit (b) period • Examples: (a) The average person spends 2.5 hours a day watching television (b) The average visit to Park X lasts 23 minutes Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning, 4th edition, Veal, 2017, CABI Tourism Texts

  43. Measuring participation: leisure/sport E(Table 3.3) • E. Money spent • Definition: • money spent: in total/per head/per household on leisure activities, goods/services • Relationship: • C x spend per visit • Example: • consumer expenditure on leisure in Britain is £50 bnper annum Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning, 4th edition, Veal, 2017, CABI Tourism Texts

  44. Measuring participation: tourism A(Table 3.3) • A. Visit rate • Definition: • the proportion of the population of a Tourist Generating Region (TGR) that visits a Tourist Destination Region (TDR) • Example: • 5% of the adult population of Region Y visited Region X in the year 2010 Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning, 4th edition, Veal, 2017, CABI Tourism Texts

  45. Measuring participation: tourism B(Table 3.3) • B. Trips • Definitions: (a) Number of departures from a TGR to a TDR (b) Total number of arrivals in a TDR • Relationships: (a) A x population of Region Y by frequency of visit (b) Aggregate of (a) across all TGRs • Examples: • 100,000 tourist departures from Region Y to Region X in 2010 • 1.2 million tourist arrivals in Region X in 2010 Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning, 4th edition, Veal, 2017, CABI Tourism Texts

  46. Measuring participation: tourism C(Table 3.3) • C. Visits • Definition: • number of visits to particular attractions or destinations by tourists • Relationships: (a) - (b) B x visits per trip • Examples: (a) 50,000 tourist visits to Theme Park X in 2010 (b) Tourists from Region Y made 300,000 visits in Region X in 2010 Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning, 4th edition, Veal, 2017, CABI Tourism Texts

  47. Measuring participation: tourism D(Table 3.3) • D. Visitor-nights • Definition: • number of visitors to a TDR x average length of stay in nights • Relationship: • C x length of stay (nights) • Example: • tourists spent 3 million visitor-nights in Region X in 2010 Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning, 4th edition, Veal, 2017, CABI Tourism Texts

  48. Measuring participation: tourism E(Table 3.3) • E. Expenditure • Definition: • expenditure by tourists in a TDR • Relationship: • C x expenditure per visit per head, or • D x expenditure per day per visitor • Example: • tourists spent £50 million in Region X in 2010 Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning, 4th edition, Veal, 2017, CABI Tourism Texts

  49. Other relevant concepts • Opportunities: • available facilities/services (see Box 3.4 + Ch. 8) • Collective consumption: • services consumed collectively, i.e. by the community (Castells) • public services • Quality-of-life: • multi-variable measurement of standard of living, health, services available etc. • Well-being: • multi-variable measure of standard of living etc: • governance, income, work, health, relationships Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning, 4th edition, Veal, 2017, CABI Tourism Texts

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