A. Most macromolecules are _________

1. Three of the four classes of macromolecules form chainlike molecules called __________. Polymers consist of many similar or identical building blocks linked by covalent bonds. The repeated units are small molecules called ____________. CHAPTER 5 THE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF MACROMOLECULES A. Most macromolecules are _________ • The four major classes of macromolecules are: __________________________________________________________________

2. The chemical mechanisms that cells use to make and break polymers are similar for __________ of macromolecules. The __________________connects monomers. Fig. 5.2a • ____________disconnects polymers

3. ______________include both sugars and polymers. The simplest carbohydrates are ________________ ______________ are consist of two monosaccharides joined by a ____________ reaction. _________________ are polymers of monosaccharides. B. Carbohydrates - Fuel and Building Material

4. __________________: Molecular formulas are some multiple of CH2O. Usually names for sugars end in ____ ________________ Have a carbonyl group and multiple________ groups. Are a major fuel for cellular work (particularly glucose) function as the raw material for the synthesis of other monomers, including those of _____________ and _______________ B.Carbohydrates B1. Sugars, the smallest carbohydrates serve as a source of fuel and carbon sources

5. Two monosaccharides can join with a __________ __________ to form a______________ via ________________. Sucrose, table sugar, is formed by joining ________and ________ and is the major transport form of sugars in plants. B.Carbohydrates Fig 5.5b

6. Polysaccharides Polymers of hundreds to thousands of monosaccharides joined by _____________linkages. An energy storage_____________ that is hydrolyzed as needed. Examples of polysaccharides for fuel storage from glucose ___________ (animals only) ___________(plants only) ___________- (plants only) B.Carbohydrates B2. Polysaccharides have _________ and ___________ roles

7. One key difference among polysaccharides develops from 2 possible______ structures of glucose. B.Carbohydrates ______ - alpha glucose monomers. Only linkage is different Fig. 5.7b _________ - (plant cell wall)- beta glucose monomers Fig. 5.7c

8. Polysaccharide strands form ________________ with other strands. Groups of polymers form strong strands, ____________, that are basic building material for plants (and humans). B.Carbohydrates Fig. 5.8

9. Why can’t mammals digest __________?? Mammalian enzymes cannot _________ the beta linkages in _________. How can cows digest cellulose Cows and termites have symbiotic relationships with ____________________, allowing them access to this rich source of energy. B.Carbohydrates • _________ is _______________polysaccharide, used in the exoskeletons of ________________ (including insects, spiders, and crustaceans). • Chitin is similar to cellulose, except that it contains a nitrogen-containing appendage on each glucose.

10. Lipids the exception among macromolecules because they do not form _____________. Little or no affinity for water. Why-? Mostly ______________ covalent bonds. Lipids are highly diverse in form and function. C. Lipids C. ________ - Diverse Hydrophobic Molecules • Not strictly polymers, but assembled by ______________ reactions.

11. A ____contains________ and _____________. C. Lipids C1. Fats store large amounts of energy • •__________- a three carbon skeleton with a _________ group attached to each. Fig. 5.10a ___________ – a carboxyl group attached to a long carbon skeleton, often 16 to 18 carbons long (very ______________). Fig. 5-11

12. In a fat, _______________ an _____________, creating a ________________. C. Lipids Fig. 5.11b The Fatty Acid chains can be the same or different • If one or more carbon-carbon double bonds, then the molecule is an ____________________ • If no carbon-carbon double bonds, then the molecule is a ___________________. Fig. 5.12a Fig. 5.12b

13. ___________fats. Most animal fats Solid at room temperature. Contribute to __________________ (atherosclerosis) through plaque deposits. _______________ fats. Plant and fish fats, known as oils, Liquid are room temperature. The _______ provided by the ____________ prevent the molecules from packing tightly together. C. Lipids

14. The major function of fats is ________________. A gram of fat stores more than ______ as much energy as a gram of a polysaccharide. Plants use ________ for energy storage when mobility is not a concern but use _______when dispersal and packing is important, as in seeds. Mammals store fats as long-term energy reserves in ____________ cells. Other functions- ___________ vital organs and ________________. C. Lipids

15. ____________ = a fat with _____ fatty acids attached to _________ plus a ____________ group at the third position. Additional smaller groups may be attached to the __________ group. C. Lipids C2. Phospholipids are major components of cell membranes Hydrophilic head Hydrophobic tail Fig. 5-13

16. C. Lipids • A cell surface contains ________________ arranged as a _______ • hydrophilic heads on the outside • hydrophobic tails form the core Fig. 5.14

17. Steroids are_______ with a carbon skeleton consisting of four fused carbon _____. Different steroids are created by varying __________ groups attached to the rings. C. Lipids C3. Steroids include cholesterol and certain hormones • ____________ • component in animal cell membranes. • precursor of all other _______ (including hormones) • high levels in the blood may contribute to ___________ disease. Fig. 5.15

18. D. Proteins Functions include structural support, storage, transport of other substances, intercellular signaling, movement, and defense against foreign substances. Humans have ________________ of different proteins, each with their own _______ and ____________. D. Proteins • All protein polymers are constructed from the same set of __ monomers, called _______________. • Polymers of proteins are called _____________. • A protein = one or more polypeptides folded and coiled into a specific _____________.

19. _____________ consist of four components attached to a central carbon, the ______________. 1. ______________ 2. _______________ 3. _______________(or side chain). D. Proteins D1. A polypeptide is a polymer of amino acids connected in a specific sequence 4. __________________ R Differences in _________produce the ___ different amino acids.

20. One group of amino acids has ________, ________ R groups. D. Proteins Rule of thumb- If R= only CH3 groups, then _________ Fig. 5.17a • Another group of amino acids has ______R groups, making them ____________. Rule of thumb- If R has -OH or =O groups, then _____

21. The last group of amino acids includes those with functional groups that are__________ (ionized) at cellular pH. Some R groups are bases, others are acids. D. Proteins If R has _____. then _____ If R has ___ then ______ Fig. 5.17c

22. Amino acids are joined in a __________________ The resulting _________ bond is called a ___________. D. Proteins Fig. 5.18

23. The order of amino acids determines the three-dimensional conformation, hence the_________. D. Proteins D2. A protein’s function depends on its specific conformation • The function of a protein is an ______________________ resulting from its specific molecular order. • Three levels of structure: ___________________ • ____________and ___________________ Fig. 5.19

24. D. Proteins • The_________structure of a protein is its unique _________ of amino acids. • Sickle cell disease, abnormal hemoglobins, is due to a single __________ substitution. Sickle cell Normal

25. The ____________ structure -hydrogen bonds at regular intervals along the polypeptide backbone. Typical shapes -_____ (an alpha helix) -_____ (beta pleated sheets). D. Proteins Not in text

26. ________ structure - determined by interactions among between ________ and the___________backbone. D. Proteins 2. ___________ interactions 1. _________ bonds 4. _____________- strong covalent bonds that form between the sulfhydryl groups (SH) of cysteine monomers, stabilize the structure. 3. _______ bonds Page 83

27. ______________ structure results from the aggregation of ____________ polypeptide subunits. ___________- fibrous protein of three polypeptides that are supercoiled like a rope. _____________- a globular protein with ____ copies of _____kinds of polypeptides. D. Proteins Hemaglobin Collagen Page 83

28. D. Proteins Review of protein structure

29. D. Proteins • Alterations in ______________________________, or other factors can unravel or __________ a protein. Disrupt the hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds, and disulfide bridges that maintain the protein’s shape. • Some proteins can return to their functional shape after ___________________, but others cannot. Fig. 5-22

30. D. Proteins • The folding of many proteins is protected by _________________ proteins. Fig. 5.23

31. E. Nucleic Acids E. Nucleic acids store and transmit hereditary information • A gene consists of regions of DNA, a polymer of ______ ____________ • Two types of nucleic acids: _________________ (RNA) and _________________ (DNA). • DNA provides direction for its own replication. • DNA makes____makes _____. • DNA is the basis of inheritance • One gene synthesizes one RNA Fig. 5-25

32. E. Nucleic Acids ______components in nucleic acids- 1.____ DNA –__ at the “2” carbon RNA –___ at the “2” carbon 3. ____ 2. _____________ Fig. 5.26c Fig. 5.26 a and b

33. E. Nucleic Acids Three components in nucleic acids- Two classes of bases 1. Base Fig. 5.26c Polynucleotides are connected by _________________________________.

34. An RNA molecule is single _____________ chain. DNA molecules have _____ polynucleotide strands that spiral around an imaginary axis to form a __________________. The ______________ was first proposed as the structure of DNA in 1953 by James Watson and Francis Crick. E. Nucleic Acids E21. Inheritance is based on replication of the DNA double helix

35. The _______________ backbones of the two polynucleotides are on the outside of the helix. Pairs of___________________, one from each strand, connect the polynucleotide chains with hydrogen bonds. Most DNA molecules have thousands to millions of base pairs. E. Nucleic Acids Fig. 5.27

36. Because of their shapes, only some bases are compatible with each other. Adenine (A) always pairs with ______________ and guanine (G) with _____________ if we know the sequence of bases on one strand, we know the sequence on the opposite strand. The two strands are _________________. E. Nucleic Acids • Each strand is copied into to make two identical __________ of the original double-stranded DNA molecule. • The copies are then distributed to the _________________ cells.

37. Genes (___) and their products (_________) document the hereditary background of an organism. Because DNA molecules are passed from parents to offspring, __________ have greater similarity than do ____________ individuals of the same species. This argument can be extended to develop a molecular ________________between species. E. Nucleic Acids 4. We can use DNA and proteins as tape measures of_____________

38. In theory, two species that ________ to be closely-related based on fossil and molecular evidence should also be more similar in DNA and protein sequences than are _____________ related species. In fact, the sequence of amino acids in hemoglobin molecules differ by only _______________ between humans and gorilla. More distantly related species have more differences. E. Nucleic Acids

39. E. Nucleic Acids