The Scientific Revolution And the Enlightenment: The Emergence of the Critical World- View

1. The Scientific Revolution And the Enlightenment: The Emergence of the Critical World- View Max Bernbeck, Tim Mauss, and Jacob Sekins

2. The Scientific Revolution

3. Causes of the Scientific Revolution

4. Medieval Europe maintained an underrated university system, even throughout the intellectually oppressive “Dark Ages” • Professors trained professionals (lawyers, doctors, etc.) • Philosophy emerged as a viable field of study produced an environment of free expression and critical thinking “[…]standing on the shoulders of Giants.”

5. Philosophy Mathematics Physics Astronomy “Community of scholars”: as support for scientific research developed, fields became more specified and students were trained accordingly. A Community of Scholars

6. Access to ancient scientific works  desire to resolve incongruities between classical and “modern” theories • Inadequacies in naval technology during Age of Exploration  government-commissioned projects to improve navigational tools increased value placed on a scientific education • Gresham College • Improved tools  easier to objectively study the elements that compose the universe Renaissance and Exploration

7. Lack of unifying religious authority in the Low Countries and England support for the study of “neutral questions” Political Influences

8. Politics & Geography

9. Success of scientific research depended on depth of religious tradition • Galileo was tried by a Papal tribunal in Florence • Newton was lauded as a hero and celebrity in England • Traditionally Catholic countries (Italian city-states, Spain, France, etc.) were far less “revolutionary” • Comparatively “liberal” countries with no central religious figures proceeded more quickly

10. Intellectual Developments

11. Until 1500—based on Aristotle crystal sphere is basis of astronomy (beyond the tenth was heaven) • Introduction of the scientific method (pioneered by Descartes) • Logic over blind faith

12. Newton: Gravity, Laws of Universal Gravitation, physics, wrote Principia in 1687 • Galileo Galilei: Gravity test, Law of Inertia, used experimental method, many astronomical advances church attempted to silence him (Dialogue on Two Chief Systems of the World-1632) • Copernicus: Heliocentricity, used Ptolemy’s telescope, but discovered flaw in Ptolemaic system of thought • Tycho Brahe: Collected data to deny Copernicus, died, and Kepler (student) eventually used extensive data to confirm Copernican model Major Thinkers

13. Sir Francis Bacon: Scientific method (Theory  Experiment  Conclusions (empirically testable) • Descartes: Doubt everything  Cartesian dualism More Thinkers…

14. Technology

15. Mathematics used to create accurate sea charts • New instruments: telescope, barometer, thermometer, pendulum clock, microscope, air pump  better able to observe the world • Applied theory leads to applied technology  close link to theoretical science

16. Economics

17. Research largely sponsored by monarchs  King of Portugal (1484) commissioned naval exploration creation of a fixed longitude • Trading companies turn to science and invest in colleges • Incorporation of Protestantism into pioneer capitalism • Improvements in navigation –> Facilitation of overseas trade  leading merchants enriched

18. The Enlightenment

19. Causes of the Enlightenment

20. Considered by many as a natural extension of the Scientific Revolution (it gained momentum for the same reasons) • Newton’s Principia (1713) + Death of Louis XIV (1715) Motivation to explore mathematical as well as socio-political theories

21. Politics & Geography

22. Second Treatise of Civil Government (1689) = Humans are a “tabula rasa”  impressionability means that government should protect their liberties and uphold justice • Social ills can be solved by a responsible, attentive government  citizens not corrupted or confused John Locke

23. Resorted to censorship in an effort to protect the dying process of absolutism • Central authorities became especially desperate after the death of the “Sun King” French Response

24. Spirit of Laws = comprehensive study of monarchs and despots  focused on the conditions that produce tyranny, and those that would prevent it • Separation of power: process by which the upper middle class checks the power of the ruling authority • “Parlements” assist this process (basis for much of American and French constitutions) • Absolute monarchs are acceptable if they protect inherent human liberties • Abused by the legal system at a young age  appealed for fairer institutions, but not replacement of them (reform over revolution) • Age of Louis XIV (1751) = portrayal of the strengths and benefits of absolutism • Absolute monarchs create or worsen conditions that contribute to tyranny and injustice Montesquieu v. Voltaire

25. Rationalism and reason imprison the soul by overwhelming it with “cold intellect” • Government and societal institutions by nature diminish human spontaneity • Social Contract (1762)= sovereign power removed from the monarch and entrusted to the people, since the activities of government should reflect their needs • “General will” is not necessarily the demands of the majority, but rather what is considered beneficial to society as it’s perceived by the minority Rousseau

26. Catherine the Great of Russia: Ignored by husband solace in Voltaire  “imported” enlightened culture (improved education, lessened torture, offered limited religious tolerance, localized nobility’s control of serfs after Pugachev’s Rebellion, defeated Turks, partitioned Poland) • Frederick the Great of Prussia: Overbearing father  militaristic nature  compensated by indulging in Enlightenment culture • Recognized that liberalizing would strengthen the potential of the state  religious freedom, freedom to publish, streamlined legal system, outlawed torture, improved schools • The Austrian Habsburgs: • Maria Theresa: limited papal influence, reorganized and strengthened the central bureaucracy, reduced power of lords over serfs and tennant farmers • Joseph II: Abolished serfdom, further controlled Catholic Church’s influence, granted religious tolerance to Jews and Protestants Enlightened Despots

27. Economics

28. Adam Smith- On the Wealth of Nations (1776) • Moved away from mercantilism to capitalist economies • Philosophes tried to influence social and economic elites • Market for books grew dramatically • Illegal book trade  Scandalous subjects

29. Intellectual Developments

30. Nationalism • Parlors/Salons • Fundamental rights –Locke • Voltaire—study scientific discoveries, popularize English science and government; expounded need for good monarch to protect the weak • Published Encyclopedia (1751)—Diderot + Alembert- controversial topics Thinkers/ Ideas

31. Rousseau –belief in General Will, Social Contract • Baron von Holbach—System of Nature; champion of Deism • Scientific method applied to everyday life rationalism • Bernard de Fontenelle (Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds) • Science conflicted with Religion based on Enlightenment …More Thinkers/ Ideas

32. Art

33. Baroque: Very Detailed/ Complicated Neoclassical: Heavily influenced by Greek/Roman art Romantic: Feelings and nature 1850 1650 1750 Artistic Styles

34. Rococo: Very Ornate, frilly Neoclassicism: Geometric styles and patterns Architecture

36. Religion

37. Great Schism + protestant reformation = People question religious authority • So many new churches formed, Europe became divided based on religion • Deism – God is like a clock maker who created the universe, but doesn’t meddle in its everyday operation Church Loses Influence

38. Social Consequences

39. Philosophes= Well educated upper middle class were able to gain influence with through public forums like the Salon, and growing universities • Increased literacy as philosophes published their ideas • Middle and lower classes have easier access to higher education  reform movements • Women, like Mary Wollstonecraft, reached a higher standing due to easier access to education. Philosophes

40. Political leaders influenced by Enlightenment ideas  social reform • Prussia and Austria abolished serfdom and allowed a higher degree of religious toleration • Russia enacted legal reform that lightened severe punishments Enlightened Despots

41. Acted as a private meeting place for enlightenment thinkers • Allowed ideas to develop and spread relatively quickly between thinkers • Often run by women like Mme. Geoffrin who, as host, had control of which topics were discussed The Salon