AP Psychology

1. AP Psychology 3.1 Learning

2. Learning • A lasting change in behavior or mental processes as the result of an experience • Behavior can be observed • Mental processes are more difficult to study

3. Instincts vs. Learning Instincts Learning Represents a significant evolutionary advance over instinctive behavior Enables humans to acquire new knowledge that can be transferred from one generation to another • Instincts are unlearned behaviors due to evolutionary programming that are found in almost all members of a species • Example…bears hibernate, geese migrate, salmon swim upstream to spawn • Humans…debated, but… • Grasping reflex, sucking reflex, pull hand away from fire, blinking

5. Classical Conditioning • Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) • Russian (later Soviet) physiologist who was awarded a Nobel Prize in 1904 for his research on the digestive system of dogs • While conducting experiments…Pavlov noticed that his dogs tended to salivate before food was actually delivered to their mouths

7. Classical Conditioning • Spent 3 decades…532 experiments to studying classical conditioning • Discovered classical conditioning (because first to be extensively studied in psych) • Condition = learned • Elicit = cause / produce / bring forth

12. 5 Components of Classical Conditioning 1. Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) (US) • natural stimulus that reflexively elicits a response without the need for prior learning • Pavlov used food as the US because it produced naturally occurring salivation reflex • Unlearned stimulus = automatic

13. 5 Components of Classical Conditioning 2. Unconditioned Response (UCR) (UR) • Unlearned response that is elicited by an US • In Pavlov’s experiments, salivation was the UR

14. 5 Components of Classical Conditioning 3. Neutral Stimulus (NS) • Any stimulus that produces no conditioned response prior to learning • In Pavlov’s experiments a ringing bell was originally a neutral stimulus.

15. 5 Components of Classical Conditioning • Conditioned Stimulus (CS) - The CS was originally the NS. • When systematically paired with the US, the NS becomes a conditioned (learned) stimulus as it gains the power to cause a response • In Pavlov’s experiments, the ringing bell became a CS when it began to produce the same salivating response that the food once produced

16. 5 Components of Classical Conditioning 5. Conditioned Response (CR) • A CR is a learned response elicited by the CS • Pavlov called the process by which a CS elicits a CR “acquisition” • In Pavlov’s experiments, he paired the ringing bell with food. Originally a NS, the ringing bell became a CS when the dog reacted with a CR by salivating • The dog’s salivation was both an UR and CR • **CC is most efficient when the CS immediately precedes the US**

22. Example of CC • Toilet flush and shower • US – hot water • UR – jumping back • NS – originally the toilet flush • CS – becomes the toilet flush • CR – jumping back

23. John B. Watson – “Little Albert” • Taught baby Albert to fear a rat • NS - Rat • Reflex: US (loud noise)  UR (cry) • Acquisition: NS + US  UR • Acq. Demonstrated: • CS (rat)  CR (cry) • Shows how phobias and human emotions develop

24. Extinction • Gradual weakening of a conditioned behavior when the CS is not followed by the US • Example…Pavlov presented the ringing bell without food --- as a result, the ringing bell gradually lost its power to elicit the CR of salivation

25. Spontaneous Recovery • The reappearance of an extinguished CR after a time delay • Example…Pavlov discovered that after a period of time, his dogs began salivating when they heard the sound of the bell **Note – the CR reappears at a lower intensity • This shows how difficult it can be to eliminate a CR

26. Generalization • Occurs when stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus also elicit the CR (when a new stimulus was not paired with the US • Example…Pavlov found that a dog conditioned to a low-pitched tone would also respond to a high-pitched tone

27. Discrimination • Ability to distinguish between two similar stimuli • Example…students have learned different responses to the sound of bells in the classroom, cell phones, and front doors • Example…gardeners demonstrate discrimination when they respond differently to weeds and to flowers

28. Generalization/Discrimination • Example… • A young boy is bitten by his neighbors dog • He runs away when he sees any neighborhood dog (Generalization) • He still enjoys playing with his family's pet collie (Discrimination)

29. Higher-order conditioning • Aka – second-order conditioning • A CS from one learning trial is paired with a new • The new US becomes the new CS capable of eliciting the CR even though it has never been paired with the US • Example… Pavlov CC a dog to salivate to the sound of a ticking metronome . He then paired the metronome with a black square. After several pairings, the black square produce salivation even though it had never been paired with food.

30. A rat has already been conditioned to associate the blue stick with a cat odor(US). A red light is flashed on before the blue stick is placed in its cage. The rat displays a second-order conditioned response when just the red tight is turned on.

31. Taste Aversion • A CC dislike for and avoidance of a particular food that develops when an organism becomes ill after eating the food • Many people have experienced vivid examples of taster aversion

32. Taste Aversion • Aka – Aversive Conditioning • NS: food • Reflex: US (stomach virus) UR (vomiting) • Acquisition: NS + US  UR • Acq. Demonstrated: • CS (food)  CR (vomiting – sick)

33. Taste Aversion • John Garcia experiments (1917) • Conducted experiments to demonstrate that taste aversions could be produced in laboratory rats • NS (saccharin-flavored water) • US (drug) -> UR (gastrointestinal distress) • After recovering from illness, the rats refused to drink the flavored water (taste aversion)

35. Taste Aversion • Garcia’s findings challenged two basic principles of CC • 1. conditioning only required a single pairing • 2. conditioning does not always need to be separated by seconds – he separated the stimuli by several hours **demonstrated there are biological constraints on conditioning!

36. Taste Aversion • Example – Wolves and Sheep

37. Operant Conditioning • Limitations on Classical Conditioning… • CC focuses on existing reflexive behaviors that are automatically elicited • Learning, however, involves new behaviors or voluntary actions that classical conditioning cannot explain

38. Edward L. Thorndike • His studies on baby chicks and cats were the first systematic investigation of animal learning • Focused on how voluntary behaviors are influenced by their consequences

39. Thorndike and the Law of Effect • Responses that lead to satisfying outcomes are more likely to be repeated • Responses followed by unpleasant outcomes are less likely to be repeated

40. Thorndike – “Cat in a Puzzle Box”

41. BF Skinner • Behaviorist who believed that psychologists should focus on observable behavior that could be objectively measured and verified

42. Skinner and Operant Conditioning • Formulated the principle of Operant Conditioning • OC – any “active behavior that operated upon the environment to generate consequences” • OC is a learning process in which behavior is shaped and maintained by consequences (rewards or punishments) that follow a response • CC (SR) / OC (RS)

43. Skinner Box • The box is a chamber that includes at least one lever, bar, or key that the animal can manipulate. • When the lever is pressed, food, water, or some other type of reinforcement might be dispensed. • Other stimuli can also be presented including lights, sounds, and images. • In some instances, the floor of the chamber may be electrified

44. Skinner Box

45. Operant Conditioning: Reinforcement • Reinforcement occurs when a stimulus (reinforcer) follows an active behavior or response • The reinforcer increases the probability that the behavior or response will be repeated

46. Positive Reinforcement • Behavior is followed by the addition of reinforcing stimulus • Stimulus increases the probability that the response will occur again • NOTE – positive does not mean “good” or “desirable” • Positive like a “+” sign • Indicates a response is strengthened because something is added

48. Examples of “+” Reinforcement • Flawless performance is school play (the operant) / your drama coach applauds and exclaims “Bravo!” reinforcing stimulus) • You earn a “A” on an AP Psychology Test (the operant) / your teacher writes you a letter (reinforcing stimulus))

49. Negative Reinforcement • Behavior or response is followed by the removal of an adverse stimulus • NOTE - negative does not mean “bad” or “undesirable” • Negative like a “-” sign • Indicates that a response is strengthened because something is subtracted or removed