Yueh-Ching Chou. Masaya Shimmei & Toshiko Nakano

1. Carers and Work-Care ReconciliationInternational ConferenceUniversity House, University of LeedsTuesday 13th August 2013Workshop E, Afternoon session Convergence or Divergence in Family Care between the East and the West: care, work, gender & state Yueh-Ching Chou. Masaya Shimmei & Toshiko Nakano 1. Institute of Health and Welfare Policy, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei, Taiwan 2. Human Care Research Team, Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Gerontology 3. Faculty of Sociology and Social Work at the Meiji Gakuin University, Tokyo/Yokohama, Japan

2. Outlines • 1. Social context/social needs in Taiwan & Japan • II. Care needs of older people in Taiwan & Japan • III. Disabled child & care • IV. Women carers in Taiwan & Japan • V. State intervention: Taiwan vs Japan • VI. Convergence or divergence • VII. Future

3. 1. Social context/social needs in Taiwan and Japan: • ageing society, low birthrate, women involved in labor market, migrant care worker increased/involved, growth of the immigrant wife family (source: Kroger & Yeandle eds., ch.1, & etc…)

4. II. Care needs of Older people in Taiwan • 4 types LTC service models in Taiwan: family care, institutional care, cared by migrant care worker, home-based and community care • Based on the analysis of the data set conducted by 2005 National Taiwanese Health Interview Survey: n=30,680, 2727 older than 65 and 630 persons of them (23.1%) requiring personal care in daily life (Chou, Pu & Chu, 2012)

5. Care needs of Older people in Japan ・about 20% of the aged population are estimated to have needs 4.62 million alzheimerpatients aged over 65 (http://www.mhlw.go.jp/stf/shingi/2r98520000033t43-att/2r98520000033t9m.pdf)

6. III. Disabled child & care in Taiwan and Japan lifelong care needs and lifelong carers (Chou, Nakano, et al., 2013) Table 8.1 People with disabilities: number, living arrangements and use of services in Taiwan and Japan (Cited from ch. 8, Kroger & Yeandle ed., 2013) Notes: IDs – intellectual disabilities *For Japan, first figure is for persons under 18 with physical and intellectual disabilities; second figure is for persons under 20 with ‘mental disorder’.

7. Japan vs Taiwan: caring for a disabled child • a family responsibility; • mothers are the primary carers; • formal support based on selective and means -tested ideology • according to both the individual person’s level of disability and level of whole family income Coping strategies: Japan: use private services to cope Taiwan: hire migrant care worker (for persons from not low family SES background, they can afford) or family care (develop own strategies as described previous) • Japan formal support: moving away from the family and shifting towards the state • flexible work; part-time work; • employers involved in support; • parental care leave for disabled child since 2009;

8. IV. Women carers in Taiwan (Chou, Kröger, Chiao, & Pu, 2012) Based on the data set from the 2006 National Taiwanese Women Survey (at age 16–64, n=6,017) The participants characteristic data: 53% employed, 50% of them work for 8-10 hours 85% of them having a child younger than 12 Caregiving hours weekly, Taiwan vs EU: 40 vs 15 hours • when compared with non-carers, women carers: • family carers did many more hours of housework, • poorer, • more isolated in terms of leisure activities, • lacked emotional support, • had a lower level of health and a lower level of family life satisfaction. • Most disadvantaged group: non-employed women carers of disabled adults-- Lifelong family carer severely impact the well-being • work seems to be good for the well-being of these carers in Taiwan

9. Women carers in Japan (National Livelihood Survey, 2012)

10. V. State intervention Taiwan vs Japan (cited from Kröger and Yeandle (Eds.) (2013) (Chapter 2) Legislation and national policy on carers: Taiwan & Japan

11. State intervention: Taiwan vs Japan (cited from Kröger and Yeandle (Eds.) (2013) (Chapter 2) Legislation and national policy on carers: Taiwan & Japan

12. VI. Convergence in the East and West -I based on 4 concepts: care, work, gender & state who are carers? • Family care=woman care, mother care, daughter care, female spouse care? • Women are primary family carers regardless being employed or non-employed? Different types of care responsibility: • Carer/parents/mother of young children? • Carer/spouse/children/daughter/daughter-in-law of older people • Carer/parents/mother of disabled children-- lifelong carer • carer of double care responsibilities Paid work is good for carers? • The most disadvantaged carers: non-employed carers (of disabled family members) (majority studies focus on employed women and carers/parents/employed mothers of young children) Solution: family care, migrant care worker, use of private/for-profit services based on SES; thus social equality reduced

13. Divergence in the East and West-II

14. Divergence in the East and West-II 14

15. VII. Future: East & West • The East: low childbirth rate, ageing society, women involved in labour force; keep moving from family care to market purchasing ? • The West: social investment for social equality and inclusion between social classes, ethnic groups, men & women? or privatizing welfare state? increasing the gap between different classes and ethnic groups? • the East & the West: • Care recipients: quality of care/life, quality of ‘ageing in place’ improved • Carers/women: well-being promoted • What can we do for the issues: care, work, gender & state?

16. References: • Chou, Yueh-Ching,Toshiko Nakano, Heng-Hao Chang and Li-Fang Liang (2013). Parent-carers in Taiwan and Japan: lifelong caring responsibilities within a familistic welfare system. In T. Kroger & S. Yeandle (Eds.) Combining paid work and family care: Policies and experiences in international perspective (chapter 8). Bristol: Policy Press.  • TeppoKröger and Sue Yeandle (Eds.) (2013) Combining paid work and family care: Policies and experiences in international perspective, Bristol: Policy Press. • Chou, Yueh-Ching, Fu, Li-yeh, & Chang, H. H. (2013). Making work fit care: reconciliation strategies used by working mothers of adults with intellectual disabilities.Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disability, 26, 133-145. • Chou, Yueh-Ching, Fu, Li-yeh, Pu, Cheng-yun & Chang, H. H. (2012e). Difficulties of work-care reconciliation: Employed and non-employed mothers of children with intellectual disabilities. Journal of Intellectual and Developmental Disability, 37(3), 260-268.

17. Chou, Yueh-Ching, Kröger, Teppo, Chiao, Chi,& Pu, Cheng-yun (2012f). Well-being among employed and non-employed caregiving women in Taiwan. International Journal of Social Welfare,22, 164-174. • Chou, Yueh-Ching, Fu, Li-yeh, Kröger, Teppo & Chiu, R. Y. (2011b). Job satisfaction and quality of life among home care workers: a comparison of home care workers who are and who are not informal carers. International Psychogeriatrics, 11 (23), 814-825. • Chou, Yueh-Ching,Pu, Cheng-yun, Kröger, Teppo & Fu, Li-yeh (2010b).Caring, employment and quality of life: comparison of employed and nonemployed mothers of adults with intellectual disability. American Journal on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (AJMR/AJIDD), 115(5), 406-420. • Kröger, Teppo (2003) Universalism in Social Care for Older People in Finland: Weak and Still Getting Weaker. Nordisk SosialtArbeid: Tidsskrift for sosialarbeidereiNorden 23 (1), 30-34.