Motivation and Emotion

1. Motivation and Emotion

2. What Is Motivation? Motivation refers to physiological or psychological factors that account for the arousal, direction, and persistence of behavior. The aspects of motivation are (a) a motivational state that prompted the behavior, (b) the goal toward which the behavior is directed, and (c) reasons for variability in the intensity of the behavior.

3. A Model of Motivation Model of how motivated activities work Need: Internal deficiency; causes drive Drive: Energized motivational state (e.g., hunger, thirst; activates a response) Goal: Target of motivated behavior Behavior: Action or series of actions designed to attain a goal

4. Types of Motives Incentive Value: Goal’s appeal beyond its ability to fill a need Primary Motive: Innate (inborn) motives based on biological needs that must be met to survive Stimulus Motive: Needs for stimulation and information; appear to be innate, but not necessary for survival Secondary Motive: Based on learned needs, drives, and goals

5. Theories of Motivation Biological theories of motivation focus on the importance of biological processes in determining motivated behavior. Instincts are unlearned, species-specific behaviors that are more complex than reflexes and triggered by environmental events called releasing stimuli.

6. Instinct Instincts are unlearned, species-specific behaviors that are more complex than reflexes and triggered by environmental events called releasing stimuli. Humans really don’t have instincts.

7. Types of Motives Incentive Value: Goal’s appeal beyond its ability to fill a need Primary Motive: Innate (inborn) motives based on biological needs that must be met to survive Stimulus Motive: Needs for stimulation and information; appear to be innate, but not necessary for survival Secondary Motive: Based on learned needs, drives, and goals

8. Incentive Value Figure 10.1 Needs and incentives interact to determine drive strength (left). (a) Moderate need combined with a high-incentive goal produces a strong drive. (b) Even when a strong need exists, drive strength may be moderate if a goal’s incentive value is low. It is important to remember, however, that incentive value lies “in the eye of the beholder” (photo). No matter how hungry, few people would be able to eat the pictured grubworms. Figure 10.1 Needs and incentives interact to determine drive strength (left). (a) Moderate need combined with a high-incentive goal produces a strong drive. (b) Even when a strong need exists, drive strength may be moderate if a goal’s incentive value is low. It is important to remember, however, that incentive value lies “in the eye of the beholder” (photo). No matter how hungry, few people would be able to eat the pictured grubworms.

9. Drive Reduction Theory Homeostasis: Body equilibrium; balance Hypothalamus: Brain structure; regulates many aspects of motivation and emotion, including hunger, thirst, and sexual behavior Feeding System: Area in the hypothalamus that, when stimulated, initiates eating Satiety System: Area in the hypothalamus that terminates eating

10. The hypothalamus Figure 10.4 This is a cross section through the middle of the brain (viewed from the front of the brain). Indicated areas of the hypothalamus are associated with hunger and the regulation of body weight. Figure 10.4 This is a cross section through the middle of the brain (viewed from the front of the brain). Indicated areas of the hypothalamus are associated with hunger and the regulation of body weight.

11. Specific Motives One factor in hunger regulation is blood sugar (glucose) levels. Low blood sugar levels signal hunger and high blood sugar levels signal that the organism is full. In addition, levels of fat are also used by the body in regulating hunger. Set Point: Proportion of body fat that is maintained by changes in hunger and eating; point where weight stays the same when you make no effort to gain or lose weight

12. The Final Word on Eating Behavior External Eating Cues: External stimuli that tend to encourage hunger or elicit eating; these cues may cause you to eat even if you are stuffed (like Homer Simpson, who eats whatever he sees!) Signs and signals linked with food Obesity is associated with several physical illnesses. Factors such as gender and poverty play a role in the prevalence of obesity among certain groups in the population

13. Behavioral Dieting Weight reduction based on changing exercise and eating habits and not on temporary self-starvation Some keys Start with a complete physical Exercise Be committed to weight loss Observe yourself, keep an eating diary, and keep a chart of daily progress Eat based on hunger, not on taste or learned habits that tell you to always clean your plate Avoid snacks Learn to weaken personal eating cues Research suggests that eating 5 or 6 small meals a day aids in weight reduction.

14. Eating Disorders: Bulimia Nervosa Excessive eating (binging) usually followed by self-induced vomiting and/or taking laxatives Difficult to treat Prozac approved by FDA to treat bulimia nervosa Overwhelmingly affects females

15. Causes of Anorexia Nervosa and Bulimia Nervosa Anorectics and bulimics have exaggerated fears of becoming fat; they think they are fat when the opposite is true! Bulimics are obsessed with food and weight; anorectics with perfect control Anorectics will often be put on a “weight-gain” diet to restore weight

16. Theories of Motivation Unlike drive-reduction theories, optimum-level theories propose that there is a level of arousal at which organisms function best. To reach this level, the organism may seek added stimulation or arousal.

17. Specific Motives Although sex is classified as a biological motive, it is different from other biological motives in important ways. Sexual behavior is influenced by external factors, brain mechanisms, and hormones. Pheromones are chemicals that elicit a response in members of the same species The display of sexual behavior in lower organisms is closely tied to hormone levels in the blood. Human sexual behavior results from a complex interplay of genetic, hormonal, and psychological factors Sex is not necessary for the survival of the individual. Nobody ever died from lack of sex.

18. Theories of Motivation Cognitive theories of motivation focus on the active processing of information. Cognitive-consistency theories stress the need to achieve a psychological state in which one's thoughts are consistent.

19. Cognitive Dissonance Cognitive dissonance occurs when incompatible thought creates an aversive state that the organism is motivated to reduce. Incentive theories of motivation stress the goals toward which the organism is pulled.

20. Theories of Motivation According to Maslow's theory, motivational needs are arranged hierarchically from basic physiological needs to self-actualization.

21. Achievement Motivation Achievement consists of behaviors that manipulate the environment, rules for those behaviors, and standards for judging performance. The need to achieve can be measured by responses to the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT).

22. Theories of Emotion The James-Lange theory states that physiological changes precede and actually create emotions. The sequence of events in emotional responding is: emotional stimulus physiological changes emotion.

23. Theories of Emotion The Cannon-Bard theory stresses the role of the thalamus in simultaneously relaying emotional input to the cortex and sympathetic nervous system.

24. Theories of Emotion Schachter’s Cognitive Theory: Emotions occur when physical arousal is labeled or interpreted on the basis of experience and situational cues

25. The Physiological Components The opponent-process theory states that an initial emotional reaction is followed by the opposite reaction in an attempt to produce homeostasis. With repeated experiences, the initial reaction gradually diminishes while the second reaction gains strength.

26. Sky Jumping??? With repeated experiences, the initial reaction gradually diminishes while the second reaction gains strength.

27. Theories of Motivation The existence of multiple motives often results in conflicts. The most common conflicts are; approach-approach, avoidance-avoidance, approach-avoidance, and multiple approach-avoidance.

28. The Physiological Components The polygraph records physiological measurements thought to indicate deception. Physiological changes can, however, result from anxiety, anger, or fear.

29. Brain and Emotion Autonomic Nervous System (ANS): Neural system that connects brain with internal organs and glands Sympathetic Branch: Part of ANS that activates body for emergency action Parasympathetic Branch: Part of ANS that quiets body and conserves energy Parasympathetic Rebound: Overreaction to intense emotion

30. The Physiological Components The assumption is that when someone is lying his SNS is turned on. Failure to recognize possible causes of this arousal can incorrectly identify people as being deceptive (false positives). And experienced liars learn how to fake it.

31. The Expressive Components There is strong evidence for universal recognition of at least six basic emotions: anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, and surprise.

32. Facial Muscles and Emotion

34. Guess the Emotion

35. The Expressive Components There are four major categories of body language: emblems, illustrators, regulators, and adaptors. The meaning of certain gestures varies with the culture.

36. The Expressive Components Paralanguage involves communication through tone of voice, rate of speech, pauses, sighs, and loudness.

37. The Expressive Components Compared with men, women report more emotional experiences and greater comfort with emotions. One possible explanation is that women's roles and occupations tend to require greater sensitivity to the emotional expressions in others.