The Age of Religious Wars

1. The Age of Religious Wars

2. The French Wars on Religion These were wars which began with hostilities in 1562 and continued until the Edict of Nantes in 1598. "Une foi, un loi, un roi," (one faith, one law, one king). This traditional saying summed up the connectedness of the state, society, and religion in the minds of the French people. Since the times of Clovis, the French monarchy had tied itself closely with the church. The Church sanctified its right to rule in exchange for military and civil protection.

3. When Henri II died suddenly in 1559, he left an enormous power vacuum at the heart of social authority in France. Henri II was the last powerful Valois Three weak sons followed: • Francis II • Charles IX • Henri III Catherine de Medici controlled the sons: • Was mother to the boys • Played both sides in the civil war • Developed a reputation for cruelty

4. Catherine de Medici

5. Francis II & His Wife, Mary Stuart

6. The House of Guise moved in. François II, although only 15, was married to Mary Queen of Scots This greatly threatened the House of Montmorency, an ancient line which had enjoyed great political prominence under Henri II AND the Bourbons, who as the first princes of the blood had the rights of tutorship over a minor king. François II was not technically a minor (14 was the age of majority), but he was young and sickly and no one expected much from him.

7. These dynastic tensions interweave with the religious and social ones. The Bourbon princes were Protestant, and although the constable de Montmorency was Catholic, his nephews, the Châtillon brothers (including Admiral de Coligny) were Protestants. The Guise identified themselves strongly as defenders of the Catholic faith and formed an alliance with Montmorency and the Marechal St. André to form the "Catholic triumvirate."

8. So, by the 1560s, as many as 1/3 of the French people were Protestants. The growth of the Roman Catholic Church had eroded its power, both religious and political. In 1560, Charles IX (1550-1574), a Roman Catholic, rose to power in France after his sickly brother Francis II’s death. But since he was just 10 years old at the time, the country was ruled by a regent, his mother, Catherine de Medici (1519-1589). Catherine was a descendant of the powerful Medici family of Florence and, as the wife of King Henry II (1519-1559), the queen of France. Even after Charles IX reached the age of majority, she continued to dominate him.

9. The French Civil War • There were two sides: • Guise family led Catholics in North • Bourbon family led Huguenots (French Protestants) in South • Fighting for the royal inheritance • Catherine supported the Guises in the first phase.

10. By 1572 Catherine feared the growing influence that another person, Admiral Gaspard de Coligny, had on her son, the king. Coligny was the leader of the Huguenots, the French Protestants, and, in fact he did hold sway over Charles IX. To remove this threat, Catherine authorized a plot by Roman Catholic nobles to assassinate Coligny. On August 18, Catherine’s daughter, Margaret of Valois was married to Henry of Navarre, a Huguenot.

11. The royal event brought many Huguenots to Paris. On August 22, an attempt was made on Coligny’s life but he survived. Catherine feared that an investigation into the attack on Coligny would reveal her role in it. She therefore gave approval to a wider plan to exterminate Huguenots, and she convinced her son, Charles IX, to order it. According to French statesman and historian Jacques-Auguste de Thou, the order stated that “it was the will of the king, that, according to God’s will, they should take vengeance on the band of rebels (the Huguenots) while they had the beast in the toils.”

12. St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre The massacre began with the toll of a palace bell on August 24. Those who carried out the killings on the Huguenot leaders identified themselves with white armbands and a white cross on their hats. Coligny was among the first victims, but Protestants throughout Paris were targeted. About 20,000 would perish in the city, causing the river of the Seine to run red. This plot which launched a mass extermination, fueled the hatred between Catholics and Protestants.

13. St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre

14. The French Civil War • Catherine started supporting the Bourbons. • Henri of Navarre defeated Catholic League & becomes Henry IV of France. • Effects of Civil War: • France was left divided by religion • Royal power had weakened • Valois family now replaced by Bourbons • Did not grant religious freedom for all! CatholicLeague CIVILWAR ProtestantUnion

15. War of the 3 Henries • Henri of Navarre Henri III Henri de Lorraine • 3rd duc de Guise aka begins Catholic • Henri IV serves after Charles IX League 1576 • first Bourbon Last of the Valois

16. Henry IV of France • Ended Spanish interference in France • Converted to Catholicism : • Did this to compromise and make peace • Paris is worth a mass. • This was an example of politique [the interest of the state comes first before any religious considerations] • Fighting for the royal inheritance • Passed Edict of Nantes in 1598: • Granted religious rights to Huguenots • Did not grant religious freedom for all

17. Philip II-Spanish Ruler Heir to the Catholic and militarily supreme western Habsburg kingdom His father, Charles V, had given the eastern Hapsburg lands of Austria, Bohemia, and Hungary to Philip’s uncle, the emperor Ferdinand I. These lands, together with the imperial title, remained in the possession of the Austrian branch of the family until 1918.

18. Pillars of Spanish Strength • Spanish colonies in the New World provided wealth. (Ex: silver mines in modern day Bolivia and Mexico) • Huge gap between the wealthy haves and the have nots. Despite the peasantry being the backbone of Philip’s empire. • Philip organized the lesser nobility into a loyal and efficient bureaucracy. • He was also a pious Catholic, although some popes suspected him of using religion for political and devotional purposes.

19. El Escorial: a palace, church tomb, and monastery Philip was a patron of the arts and culture as seen by his unique retreat outside of Madrid.

20. Monastery Gardens

21. During first half of Philip’s reign, he focused on the Mediterranean and the Turkish threat. Spain had traditionally been a champion against the Turks: 1560s: Turks advance into Austria and fleets dominate the Mediterranean sea 1568-1570: armies under Philip’s half-brother, Don John of Austria (illegitimate son of Charles V), suppressed and dispersed the Moors in Granada May 1571: a Holy League -Spain, Venice, Genoa, and pope, under Don John’s command focused on Turks in Mediterranean *Largest naval battle of 16th century, Don John versus Ottoman navy under Ali Pasha

22. The Revolt in the Netherlands Netherlands richest area of Europe and Philip’s kingdom. 1559, Philip leaves the Netherlands for Spain, leaving his sister Margaret of Parma, assisted by a special council, as regent Council headed by Antoine Perrenot (known after 1561 as Cardinal Granvelle) with the hopes of: Checking Protestant gains by internal church reforms Break down the traditional local autonomy of the 17 Netherlands provinces Replace with a centralized royal government directed from Madrid Goal: politically docile and religiously uniform country

23. Netherland’s merchant towns, independent and Calvinist strongholds Two members of the council of state led opposition to Spanish rule: Count of Egmont and William of Nassau aka William of Orange William of Orange placed politics of Netherlands above religion and he was a confessed Catholic, Lutheran, and Calvinist He married Anne of Saxony Orange and Egmont organized Dutch nobility in opposition to Granvelle which resulted in his removal from office in 1564

24. After Granvelle’s removal, aristocratic control proved inefficient and popular unrest grew The Compromise: Philip II insisted on trying to enforce the decrees of the Council of Trent throughout the Netherlands William of Orange’s younger brother, Louis of Nassau, who was raised Lutheran, led the opposition with Calvinist nobility support. A national covenant called the Compromise was drawn up: a solemn pledge to resist the decrees of Trent the and Inquisition

25. After protesters are insulted by Regent Margaret’s government in 1566, Calvinists riot across the country. Louis will call for aid from French Huguenots and German Lutherans. A full scale rebellion against the Spanish regency appeared imminent. The rebellion ultimately fails because the higher nobility of the Netherlands would not support it. Philip, determined to make an example of the Protestant rebels, sends the duke of Alba to suppress the revolt.

26. The duke of Alba’s army of 10,000 journeyed northward from Milan to 1567 in a show of combined Spanish and papal might. A special tribunal, known as the Spanish as the Council of Troubles and among the Netherlands as the Council of Blood, reigned over the land. Before Alba’s reign of terror ended, the counts of Egmont and Horn and several thousand suspected heretics were publicly executed.

27. The Spanish levied new taxes, forcing Netherlands to pay for the suppression of its own revolt. An example of tax was the “tenth penny,” a ten percent sales tax, which met much resistance from merchants and artisans. Persecution and taxation forced thousands to flee from the Netherlands. Alba, during his six year rule, became even more hated then Granvelle or the radical Calvinists.

28. William of Orange was in exile in Germany during Alba’s reign. He now emerged as a leader of a broad movement for the independence of the Netherlands and Spain. The northern, Calivinist-inclined provinces of Holland, Zeeland, and Utrecht, of which Orange was Stadholder, or governor, became his base. Early victories attest to the popular character of the revolt. In 1573, Alba will cede power to Don Luis de Requesens, who replaces him as commander of the Spanish forces in the Netherlands.

29. Spanish Fury: after Requesens’s death in 1576, the greatest atrocity of the war occurs when Spanish mercenaries, leaderless and unpaid, ran through the streets of Antwerp leaving 7,000 people dead. What good came out of these atrocities? The 10 largely Catholic southern provinces (roughly modern Belgium) and the 7 largely Protestant northern provinces (roughly modern Netherlands) unified in opposition to Spain.

30. Pacification of Ghent: the unification of the northern and southern provinces on November 8, 1576 It declared internal regional sovereignty in matters of religion which was a key clause since the signatories were not agreed over religion. All members eventually join to form the Union of Brussels in January of 1577. Don John, the victor over the Turks, had taken over command of Spanish land forces in November 1576.

31. Don John, after facing defeat by a unified Netherlands, was forced to sign the Perpetual Edict in February 1577, which provided for the removal of Spanish troops from the Netherlands within twenty days. The withdrawal gave the country to William of Orange. Two southern provinces, where fear of Calvinist extremism forced the breaking of the Union of Brussels, formed the Union of Arras and soon made peace with Spain. These provinces later served the cause of the Counter-Reformation. In response, the northern provinces formed the Union of Utrecht.

32. Netherlands Independence As a last opportunity to regain the Netherlands, Philip II declared William of Orange and outlaw and placed a bounty of 25,000 crowns on his head. William gave a famous defiant speech to the Estates General of Holland in December 1580, known as the Apology, where he denounced Philip II and said Netherlands should not obey.

33. On July 22, 1581, members of Union of Utrecht (northern provinces) met in Hague and declared Philip no longer their ruler. They would turn to the French duke of Alencon, the youngest son of Catherine de Medicis. All northern provinces except Holland and Zeeland (due to distrust) would accept Alencon as their sovereign with the understanding it was more a title than a tyrant role. However, Alencon will try to take actual control and will be deposed of in 1583.

34. Spanish efforts to reconquer Netherlands continued. William of Orange assassinated in July 1584 and was succeeded by his 17 year old son, Maurice who would continue the Dutch resistance with the help of England and France. Thankfully for the Netherlands, Philip II begins to meddle in French and English affairs. For example, he signs a secret treaty with Guises known as the Treaty of Joinville in 1584 and he sent armies under Alexander Farnese into France in 1590.

35. The English openly aided the Dutch and so, the English and Philip’s relations will build to a climax in 1588 when Philip’s great Armada is defeated in the English Channel. 1596: France and England will formerly recognize the Netherlands independence. Peace was not concluded with Spain until 1609, when the Twelve Years’ Truce gave the northern provinces virtual independence. Full recognition will come with the Peace of Westphalia in 1648.

36. A Quick Review and Updates with our Tudor Soap Opera  The Tudor (and Stuart) Monarchs

37. Henry VIII After his elder brother Arthur died, Henry became heir to the throne. Spain and England wanted to keep their alliance, even w/ Arthur’s death So Henry married Catherine of Aragon, Arthur’s widow - no papal dispensation was given, and the marriage was even done by proxy; Henry was only permitted to consent at canonical age (which he never did) Later he tried to annul this marriage so he could marry Anne Boleyn. Henry claimed that God punished him by denying him a legitimate male heir – in Leviticus, God does threaten childlessness if a man marries his brother’s widow…so Henry came to see this marriage as cursed…

38. Edward VI He was the son of Henry VIII and Jane Seymour - a Protestant who became king at the age of 9. The Church of England expanded while he was king. But he was sickly and died at the age of 16. During his kingship, England was largely under the rule of Edward’s council, which included Thomas Seymour (the Duke of Somerset)…

39. Elizabeth fell in love with Thomas Seymour, and he wanted to marry either Elizabeth or Mary (but they could only marry w/ the permission of the entire council), so Seymour instead married Catherine Parr (Henry’s widow) – as Elizabeth lived w/ Parr, this made Seymour her stepfather and guardian When Parr died in childbirth, she had left all to Seymour in an oral will

40. Jane Grey In need of a lady of the household, he brought in Lady Jane Grey (Henry VIII’s grand-niece), saying he would marry her off to Edward VI Seymour wanted Lady Jane Grey as the next queen, as opposed to Edward’s sister Mary, who was Catholic. (Seymour’s son had married Jane Grey.) in 1549, Edward passed the Act of Uniformity, introducing the Protestant Prayer Book – Mary looked to Catholic Spain and her cousin Charles V for assistance – basically, she disobeyed her brother and father… So all the fundamental 16th century values came into conflict – religion, patriotism, the law, dynastic succession…

41. Edward opted for religion and plotted to get rid of Mary (and Elizabeth, as he thought she would not go along w/ him) Edward thought succession would go to the male descendants of Mary Stuart There were no male heirs at that time, but it was assumed someone would have a son eventually…but then Edward’s health went into rapid decline, and time was running out On his deathbed, Edward changed his will to indicate that Lady Jane Grey (and not her male heirs) should succeed him When Edward died, Jane became the queen, but Mary also proclaimed herself the queen – when Jane’s army faltered, the council abandoned her When Mary recaptured the throne she had Seymour and Jane executed (Jane was queen for 9 days)...

42. Mary I (Bloody Mary) Mary was the daughter of Henry VIII and Catharine of Aragon. During her childhood, Mary was persecuted by Henry when he wanted to annul his marriage to her mother. As Queen she attempted to restore Catholicism, and she married the young Philip from Spain. She also had more than 300 Protestants killed. None of these actions was popular with the now firmly entrenched Protestant England

43. Mary pressured Elizabeth to convert to Catholicism – she learned to go thru the motions Mary turned against Elizabeth anyway – saw her as a threat She wanted a husband to play the necessary chivalric role; at this time Charles V offered his handsome 26 yr old son Philip (she was 37 and less attractive) Spain was looking for an alliance w/ Eng. against France and hoped a re-Catholicized Eng. would help Spain against the revolt in the Netherlands Many in Eng. never accepted her marriage to Philip A rebellion erupted against Mary (=Wyatt’s rebellion) – Elizabeth was connected to it, and ended up in the Tower… But she admitted nothing and was spared, finding herself instead under house arrest

44. But Mary and Philip had trouble conceiving a child…Philip decided to leave and pursue other kingdoms instead…and he came to favour Elizabeth over Mary as he thought it was better for the Habsburgs (w/o Elizabeth, the other successor was Mary, Queen of Scots, who would have allied with France) Philip had managed to take England into a war w/ France, and the England lost the fortress of Calais… Mary’s regime had failed, and was unpopular anyway with the 100s of burnings… When Mary died peacefully, Elizabeth acceded to the throne peacefully – she was proclaimed in only 6 hrs. as having the “lawful right and title to the crown”

45. Elizabeth I The red-haired daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn, she became England’s greatest leader. She kept control of England by refusing to marry anyone and playing one noble against another – many hoping to marry the Queen. She kept religious wars down, advanced exploration, became a patron of the arts, and brought England to the position of world power with the defeat of the Spanish Armada

46. Elizabeth, assisted by an adivsor: Sir William Cecil, built a true kingdom between 1559-1603. A 45 year period during which England dominated the seas to become a European power; colonization began with Sir Walter Raleigh and others establishing settlements in North America; culture flourished with individuals such as William Shakespeare, Christopher Marlowe, and Sir Edmund Spenser producing literary masterpieces; and industry commerce boomed. This is the Elizabethan Age!

47. Elizabeth And Religion 1559: Act of Supremacy passed by Parliament, repealed all anti-Protestant legislation of Mary Tudor and asserts Elizabeth’s right as “supreme governor” over both spiritual and temporal affairs. 1559: Act of Uniformity mandated for every English parish a revised version of the second Book of Common Prayer 1563: Thirty-Nine Articles, a revision of Thomas Cramner’s original forty-two, made a moderate Protestantism the official religion within the Church of England

48. Elizabeth hoped to avoid both Catholic and Protestant extremism. When she ascended the throne, Catholics were majority in England. The extremists among them, encouraged by the Jesuits, plotted against her. The Spanish would later help these radicals because of her Protestant sympathies and her refusal to wed Philip II. However, Elizabeth chose to remain unmarried throughout her reign, using the possibility of royal marriage to her diplomatic advantage.

49. Catholic extremists hoped to replace Elizabeth who had been declared illegitimate during the reign of her father, with Mary Stuart, Queen of Scots. Mary’s grandmother was Margaret, Henry VIII’s sister. She would act swiftly on assassination plots. However, Elizabeth would execute far fewer Catholics in her 45 year reign than Mary Tudor had executed Protestants in her 5 year reign. Elizabeth showed no mercy to any who threatened the unity of her rule. She dealt cautiously with the Puritans.

50. Puritans A religious movement that began in England in the 1500s and lasted into the first half of the 1600s Named Puritans because they wanted to purify the Anglican church aka the Church of England. They believed too much power rested in the church hierarchy (its priests, bishops, and cardinals), that the people (called laity) should have more involvement in church matters, and the ceremonies ought to be simplified to stress Bible reading and individual prayer. Does this sound familiar? When the Puritans faced persecution at home, they became religious pilgrims, traveling to the New World. The settled at a place called Plymouth Rock.