Motivation and Emotion

1. Motivation and Emotion

2. Motivation – a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior

3. 5 Theories of Motivation • Instinct Theory • Drive Theory • Incentive Theory • Arousal Theory • Humanistic Theory

4. Instinct Theory Click on the fish to watch it’s instinctual behavior. • Instinct Theory – genetically predisposed (unlearned) behaviors that are common across a species • Only a few identified for humans • Only names behaviors doesn’t explain them • Example: • Salmon swimming upstream to lay eggs • Babies rooting and sucking reflex

5. Drive Reduction Theory • Drive Reduction Theory - physiological need creates a drive (state of tension) that motivates us to satisfy the need • Need - a physiological state that usually triggers motivational arousal • Example – lack of body fluids/need for water • Drive – An aroused or activated state that is often triggered by a physiological need • Example - Thirst • Key Ideas • ONLY explains behavior is motivated by BIOLOGICAL NEEDS. • Goal is Homeostasis - tendency to maintain a balanced internal state.

6. Primary versus Secondary drives • Primary drives – innate • Examples: thirst, hunger • Drive reduction theory only explains primary drives • Secondary drives – drives learned by conditioning • Example: Money, fear • Secondary Drives are explained by incentive theory

7. Incentive Theory Incentives - positive or negative environmental stimulus that lure or repel us (similar to rewards and punishments) • Incentive theory acts when an external stimuluspulls you in a certain direction • Example – What motivates you to come to AP Psych class? • The grade?. • What motivates you to eat chocolate chip cookies? • The smell (incentive theory), • Drive theory acts by an internal state pushing you in a specific direction. • Example: What motivates you to eat a chocolate chip cookie? • Lack of food/need for food (drive theory)

8. Arousal Theory • We are motivated to seek an optimum level of arousal. • Yerkes-Dodson Law – performance increases with physiological or mental arousal, but only up to a point. When levels of arousal become too high, performance decreases • Optimum level of performance occurs when stress is moderate • Example: You will perform better on your AP Psych test if there is a moderate level of stress and arousal…too much and you will not do well

9. Humanistic Theory of Motivation • Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs • Abraham Maslow said we are motivated by needs, and all needs are not created equal. • Driven to satisfy the lower level needs first. • Example: Johnny acts out in class. He is motivated by his need to belong. **Know the levels of the hierarchy

10. Motivation of HUNGER Ancel Keys study on conscientious objectors

11. Keys Study • Fed 36 male volunteers just enough food to maintain initial weight, then cut food levels in half • Results • Men conserved energy • Dropped weight rapidly initially, but stabilized at 25% below starving weights • Psych effects – food obsessed, lost interest in sex and activities

12. Physiology of Hunger • Washburn’s studies showed hunger was partially related to the stomach. • But those with their stomachs removed still feel hunger.

13. Biological Basis of Hunger • Hunger does NOT come from our stomach. It comes from our… • Brain What part of the brain? • The Hypothalamus

14. Hypothalamus Lateral Hypothalamus Ventromedial Hypothalamus Depresses hunger When stimulated you feel full. When lesioned you will never feel full again and become … • Brings on hunger by triggering release of orexin (hunger arousing hormone) • When stimulated it makes you hungry. • When lesioned (destroyed) you will never be hungry again.

15. Leptin Leptin- a protein produced by bloated fat cells. Hypothalamus senses rises in leptin and will curb eating and increase activity. Set Point Set Point - point at which a person’s weight thermostat is set Influenced by heredity Hypothalamus acts like a thermostat to maintain a certain weight range. Goal = homeostasis Lateral or ventromedial hypothalamus activated as needed Overweight = Underweight = Examples: After losing 30lbs, Susan began to put the weight back on How Hypothalamus works: Two Theories ventromedial lateral

16. Basil Metabolic Rate • BMR- minimum caloric requirement needed to sustain life in a resting individual • amount of energy (measured in calories) burned by the body if you remain in bed asleep all day! • Normal weight below set point, hunger increase and BMR will decrease • Energy expenditure decreases • Normal Weight above set point, hunger will decrease and BMR will increase • Energy expenditure increases

17. Body Chemistry and the Brain • Appetite hormones • Ghrelin – secreted by stomach hunger arousing hormone • Obestatin – secreted by stomachsuppresses appetite • PYY – secreted by digestive tract: suppresses appetite • Leptin – protein secreted by fat cells that diminishes the rewarding pleasure of food

18. Body Chemistry • Glucose – form of sugar in blood • Low levels increase hunger • High levels decrease hunger • Insulin - hormone that converts glucose to fat. • When glucose levels drop- hunger increases. • Hyperglycemia (diabetes) – glucose too high, don’t produce insulin to convert glucose to fat • Hypoglycemia – glucose too low, need carbs

19. Psychology of Hunger

20. Psychology of Hunger Dog Mice Wine • Amnesia patients will eat 20 minutes after just eating a meal • TASTE • Carbs – boost serotonin = calming effect • Preference for sweet and salty tastes - universal and genetic • Highly salty – learned • Garcia Effect - aversion for foods that make us sick • Taste preferences are cultural and adaptive • Dog, rat meat, horse meat, camel eye, sparrow • Repeated exposure increases appreciation for new tastes • Neophobia – dislike for novel things is adaptive • Spices in hot climate • Nausea during pregnancy Fried Frog Legs

21. Ecology of Eating • Social Facilitation – when we’re around others we eat more • Example: At a party we tend to eat more • Unit Bias – We eat more served in larger portion sizes • Supersized at MCDonalds

22. Although Jan appears to be underweight, she is afraid of becoming fat and consistently restricts her food intake. Although Gene appears to be overweight, he enjoys eating and always eats as much as he wants. Explain how their different reactions to food might result from (a) differences in their inner bodily states and (b) differences in their reactions to external incentives.

23. Eating Disorders Bulimia Nervosa • Characterized by binging (eating large amounts of food) and purging (getting rid of the food). • Higher than usual childhood obesity Binge-eating disorder – spurts of excessive overeating followed by remorse (no purging)

24. Anorexia Nervosa • Starve themselves to below 85% of their normal body weight. • See themselves as fat. • Vast majority are woman, but not all • Families are high achieving and protective. • Live in cultures where thin bodies are idealized

25. Causes of Eating Disorders • Sex abuse – ruled out • Genetic – Identical twins share • Culture – idealizes thinness • Childhood obesity – bulimia • High achieving and protective families – anorexia • Gender differences

26. Obesity and Weight Control • Historical Reasons: • Fat helps body through periods when food is scarce • In developed nations old rule is dysfunctional • Obesity = BMI of 30+ • Life expectancy

27. Obesity

28. Obesity

29. The Social Effects of Obesity • Weight discrimination • Psychological effects of obesity • 25% increase in depression and anxiety

30. The Physiology of Obesity • Fat Cells • Typical adult 30-40B • Obese – 75B (swell to 2-3X normal size then divide) • Still have more but smaller fat cells and slower metabolic rates if lose weight

31. Genetics & Obesity • Body weights resemble biological parents • Gene FTO identified doubles risk • Identical twins have similar weights • +.74 correlation • Obese parents = obese children • 3X boy 6X girl

32. Environmental Factors & Obesity • Sleep loss • Levels of leptin fall, ghrelin and orexin rise • Social influence • Obese friends = obesity • Food consumption and activity level • TV viewing habits

33. Losing Weight • Realistic and moderate goals • Minimize exposure to tempting foods • Don’t starve all day • Attitudinal changes

34. Sexual Motivation • Interplay of internal and external Stimuli • Genes way of preserving and spreading themselves • 2 important studies contributed to our knowledge of sexual motivation • Kinsey Studies • Masters and Johnson

35. Kinsey’s Studies • Confidential interviews with 18,000 people (in early 1950’s). • Sexual Behavior in the Human Male and Sexual Behavior in the Human Female • Scale of sexuality….0 to 6 where 0 is exclusively heterosexual and 6 homosexual and 7 is asexual. Click on Kinsey to see the movie trailer.

36. Masters and Johnson Study Click on Masters and Johnson to see a more detailed explanation of their research. • William Masters and Virginia Johnson (1960s) - explored the physiology of sex. • 382 females and 312 males. After their research was done they ran an institute that claimed to turn gay people straight.

37. Sexual Response Cycle4 stages of sexual responding • Excitement Phase • Plateau Phase • Orgasm • Resolution Phase • Includes refractory period – man is incapable of another organsm

38. Hormones and Sexual Behavior • Effects of hormones • Development of sexual characteristics • Activate sexual behavior • Estrogen • Sex hormones secreted in greater amounts by females • female sex characteristics • Peaks during ovulation increasing receptivity- “in heat” (non-humans), in humans sexual desire rises slightly during ovulation • Testosterone • Sex hormones secreted in greater amounts by males • women more responsive to testosterone than non-human females • loss of ovaries = decrease in testosterone and sex drive • Male sex characteristics in fetus and puberty • Rises in men with social interaction • Castrated rats and men lose sexual desire

39. Psychological Factors in Sexual Motivation • External Stimuli • Erotic Materials • more active Amygdala in males • Women exhibit nearly as much arousal • More likely to hurt women if women depicted as enjoying • Devalue partners • Imagined stimuli • Dreams – Can contain sexual imagery • Sexual Fantasies • Both sexes, but men more often, more physically and less romantically

40. Levels of Analysis for Sexual Motivation

41. Teen Pregnancy • Ignorance • Minimal communication about birth control • Guilt related to sexual activity • Alcohol use • Mass media norms of unprotected promiscuity

42. Sexually Transmitted Infections • Statistics of STIs • Teen abstinence • High intelligence • Religious engagement • Father presence • Participation in service learning programs • xxx

43. Sexual Orientation • Sexual Orientation - An enduring sexual attraction toward members of either one's own gender or the other gender. • Heterosexual • Homosexual • Sexual orientation statistics – 3-4% men; 1-2% women • Erotic plasticity – women more likely to feel bisexual attraction, more changeable than men in sexual orientation

44. How is Sexual Orientation Determined • There has been NO evidence that sexuality is socially determined. • Kids raised by gay parents are no more likely to be gay that if they were raised by hetero parents. • Indicates it is likely biologically determined.

45. The Brain • Simon LeVay - cluster of cells in hypothalamus that is larger in heterosexual men. • Right hemisphere larger in heterosexual men, and lesbian women • Differences are very early postnatally if not prenatally • Originate at about the time of birth or even before

46. Prenatal Environment • men who have older brothers are somewhat more likely to be gay (about 1/3 more likely for each additional older brother) • Blanchard study – maternal immune defense response to foreign substances produced by male fetus • preventing fetus brain from developing in male-typical pattern.

47. Prenatal Environment • Hormonal levels in the prenatal environment • elevated rates of homosexual orientation in identical and fraternal twins • exposure to hormone levels typical for female fetus predisposes the person to be attracted to males (whether male or female) • Fingerprint ridges are higher in right hand than left in heterosexual males

48. Genes Genes – homosexuality does run in families • identical twins more likely to share a homosexual orientation • Studies on female fruit-flies – single gene determines sexual orientation and behavior

49. Biological Correlates of Sexual Orientation • Prenatal Hormone Influences • Altered prenatal hormone exposure may lead to homosexuality in humans and other animals • Right-handed men with several older biological brothers are more likely to be gay (Fraternal Birth Order) • Brain Differences • Brain asymmetry is greater in straight men and lesbian women (right hemisphere larger) • One hypothalamic cell cluster is larger in straight men tan in women and gay men • Genetic Influences • Shared sexual orientation is higher among identical twins than fraternal twins • Sexual attraction in fruit flies can be genetically altered • Brain Differences and Genetic and prenatal influences may contribute to gay-straight differences in… • Spatial abilities Gender nonconformity • Fingerprint ridge count auditory system develop. • Male body size Sleep length • Handedness occupational preferences • Physical aggression relative finger lengths • Male eating disorders age onset of male puberty

50. The Need to Belong • Aiding survival • Wanting to belong • Sustaining relationships • Ostracism – social exclusion • Increased activity in the anterior cingulate cortex