MK. PENGELOLAAN SDALH

1. MK. PENGELOLAAN SDALH HASIL-HASIL PENELITIAN MODAL SOSIAL Smno.psdl.pdkl.ppsub2013

2. MODAL SOSIAL: DEFINISI, DEMENSI, DAN TIPOLOGI Agus Supriono2, Dance J. Flassy3, Sasli Rais4 2Staf PengajarSosialEkonomiPertanian – FakultasPertanian – UniversitasJember; Mahasiswa S3, FakultasEkonomi, Universitas Gajah Mada, Yogyakarta. 3Sekretaris Badan Perencanaan Pembangunan Daerah Provinsi Papua Barat, Mahasiswa S3 FakultasIlmuSosialdanPolitik (FISIP) – Universitas Indonesia. 4Staf Pengajar STIE PengembanganBisnisdanManajemen - Jakarta, Tim TeknisProject Management Unit – Program NasionalPemberdayaanMasyarakatMandiri Daerah Tertinggaldan Khusus – Bappenas. ABSTRAK Semakinmengemukanyapencermatanterhadapkeberadaanpotensidanperanpenting modal sosialdidalamsistemperekonomiandewasaini, mulaiterjadiketikaparapakardanpelakuekonomi mulai merasakan adanya sejumlah kejanggalan dan kegagalan implementasi mazab ekonomi neo-klasik yang pro-globalisasi dan pro-liberalisasi perdagangan dalam menata perekonomianduniabarudewasaini. Secaraumum modal sosialadalahmerupakanhubungan-hubungan yang terciptadannorma-norma yang membentukkualitasdankuantitashubungansosialdalammasyarakatdalamspektrum yang luas, yaitusebagaiperekatsosial(social glue) yang menjagakesatuananggotamasyarakat (bangsa) secarabersama-sama. Wujuddaritipologi modal sosialinidapatberupa modal sosialterikat(bonding social capital) dan modal sosial yang menjembatasi (bridging social capital). Diunduhdari: p2dtk.bappenas.go.id/downlot.php?...Modal%20S... ……….15/12/2012

3. MODAL SOSIAL: DEFINISI, DEMENSI, DAN TIPOLOGI Agus Supriono2, Dance J. Flassy3, Sasli Rais4 2Staf PengajarSosialEkonomiPertanian – FakultasPertanian – UniversitasJember; Mahasiswa S3, FakultasEkonomi, Universitas Gajah Mada, Yogyakarta. 3Sekretaris Badan Perencanaan Pembangunan Daerah Provinsi Papua Barat, Mahasiswa S3 FakultasIlmuSosialdanPolitik (FISIP) – Universitas Indonesia. 4Staf Pengajar STIE PengembanganBisnisdanManajemen - Jakarta, Tim TeknisProject Management Unit – Program NasionalPemberdayaanMasyarakatMandiri Daerah Tertinggaldan Khusus – Bappenas. Sistemperekonomiandewasainimulaididominasiolehperananhuman capital, yaitu ‘pengetahuan’ dan ‘ketrampilan’ manusia. Kandungan lain darihuman capital selainpengetahundanketrampilanadalah‘kemampuan masyarakat untuk melakukan asosiasi (berhubungan) satu sama lain’. Kemampuaniniakanmenjadi modal pentingbukanhanyabagikehidupanekonomiakantetapijugabagisetiapaspekeksistensisosial yang lain. Modal yang demikianinidisebutdengan ‘modal sosial’ (social capital), yaitukemampuanmasyarakatuntukbekerjabersamademi mencapai tujuan bersama dalam suatu kelompok dan organisasi (Coleman, 1990). Coleman, J., 1990. Foundations of Social Theory. Cambridge Mass: Harvard University Press. Diunduhdari: p2dtk.bappenas.go.id/downlot.php?...Modal%20S... ……….15/12/2012

4. MODAL SOSIAL: DEFINISI, DEMENSI, DAN TIPOLOGI Agus Supriono2, Dance J. Flassy3, Sasli Rais4 2Staf PengajarSosialEkonomiPertanian – FakultasPertanian – UniversitasJember; Mahasiswa S3, FakultasEkonomi, Universitas Gajah Mada, Yogyakarta. 3Sekretaris Badan Perencanaan Pembangunan Daerah Provinsi Papua Barat, Mahasiswa S3 FakultasIlmuSosialdanPolitik (FISIP) – Universitas Indonesia. 4Staf Pengajar STIE PengembanganBisnisdanManajemen - Jakarta, Tim TeknisProject Management Unit – Program NasionalPemberdayaanMasyarakatMandiri Daerah Tertinggaldan Khusus – Bappenas. Bourdieu (1986) mengemukakankritiknyaterhadapterminologi modal (capital) didalamilmuekonomikonvensional. Dinyatakannya modal bukanhanyasekedaralat-alatproduksi, akantetapimemilikipengertian yang lebihluasdandapatdiklasifikasikankedalam 3 (tiga) golongan, yaitu: Modal ekonomi (economic capital), Modal kultural (cultural capital), dan Modal sosial (social capital). Modal ekonomi, dikaitkandengankepemilikanalat-alatproduksi. Modal kultural, terinstitusionalisasidalambentukkualifikasipendidikan. Modal sosial, terdiridarikewajiban - kewajibansosial. Bourdieu, P. 1986. The Form of Capital. In J. Richardson (Ed). Handbook of Theory and Research for Sociology of Education. New York: Greenwood Press. Diunduhdari: p2dtk.bappenas.go.id/downlot.php?...Modal%20S... ……….15/12/2012

5. MODAL SOSIAL: DEFINISI, DEMENSI, DAN TIPOLOGI Agus Supriono2, Dance J. Flassy3, Sasli Rais4 2Staf PengajarSosialEkonomiPertanian – FakultasPertanian – UniversitasJember; Mahasiswa S3, FakultasEkonomi, Universitas Gajah Mada, Yogyakarta. 3Sekretaris Badan Perencanaan Pembangunan Daerah Provinsi Papua Barat, Mahasiswa S3 FakultasIlmuSosialdanPolitik (FISIP) – Universitas Indonesia. 4Staf Pengajar STIE PengembanganBisnisdanManajemen - Jakarta, Tim TeknisProject Management Unit – Program NasionalPemberdayaanMasyarakatMandiri Daerah Tertinggaldan Khusus – Bappenas. Definisi Modal Sosial Modal sosial (social capital) dapat didefinisikan sebagai kemampuan masyarakat untukbekerjabersama, demimencapaitujuan-tujuanbersama, didalamberbagaikelompokdanorganisasi (Coleman, 1999). Secaralebihkomperehensif Burt (1992) mendefinsikan, modal sosialadalahkemampuanmasyarakatuntukmelakukanasosiasi (berhubungan) satusama lain danselanjutnyamenjadikekuatan yang sangatpentingbukanhanyabagikehidupanekonomiakantetapijugasetiapaspekeksistensisosial yang lain. Menurut Burt (1992), kemampuanberasosiasiinisangattergantungpadasuatukondisidimanakomunitasitumausalingberbagiuntukmencarititiktemunorma-normadannilai-nilaibersama. Apabilatitiktemuetis-normatifinidiketemukan, makapadagilirannyakepentingankepentingan individual akantundukpadakepentingan-kepentingankomunitaskelompok. Burt. R.S. 1992. Excerpt from The Sosial Structure of Competition, in Structure Holes: The Social Structure of Competition. Cambridge, MA and London: Harvard University. In ElinorOstrom and T.K. Ahn. 2003. Foundation of Social Capital. Massachusetts: Edward Elgar Publishing Limited. Coleman, J., 1990. Foundations of Social Theory. Cambridge Mass: Harvard University Press. --------------. 1999. Social Capital in the Creation of Human Capital. Cambridge Mass: Harvard University Press. Diunduhdari: p2dtk.bappenas.go.id/downlot.php?...Modal%20S... ……….15/12/2012

6. MODAL SOSIAL: DEFINISI, DEMENSI, DAN TIPOLOGI Agus Supriono2, Dance J. Flassy3, Sasli Rais4 2Staf PengajarSosialEkonomiPertanian – FakultasPertanian – UniversitasJember; Mahasiswa S3, FakultasEkonomi, Universitas Gajah Mada, Yogyakarta. 3Sekretaris Badan Perencanaan Pembangunan Daerah Provinsi Papua Barat, Mahasiswa S3 FakultasIlmuSosialdanPolitik (FISIP) – Universitas Indonesia. 4Staf Pengajar STIE PengembanganBisnisdanManajemen - Jakarta, Tim TeknisProject Management Unit – Program NasionalPemberdayaanMasyarakatMandiri Daerah Tertinggaldan Khusus – Bappenas. Fukuyama (1995) mendifinisikan, modal sosialsebagaiserangkaiannilai-nilaiataunorma-norma informal yang dimilikibersamadiantaraparaanggotasuatukelompok yang memungkinkanterjalinnyakerjasamadiantaramereka. Cox (1995) mendefinisikan, modal sosialsebagaisuaturangkianproseshubunganantarmanusia yang ditopangolehjaringan, norma-norma, dankepercayaansosial yang memungkinkanefisiendanefektifnyakoordinasidankerjasamauntukkeuntungandankebajikanbersama. Parthadan Ismail S. (1999) mendefinisikan, modal sosialsebagaihubungan-hubungan yang terciptadannorma-norma yang membentukkualitasdankuantitashubungansosialdalammasyarakatdalamspektrum yang luas, yaitusebagaiperekatsosial(social glue) yang menjagakesatuananggotakelompoksecarabersama-sama. Solow (1999) mendefinisikan, modal sosialsebagaiserangkaian nilai-nilai atau norma-norma yang diwujudkan dalam perilaku yang dapat mendorongkemampuandankapabilitasuntukbekerjasamadanberkoordinasiuntukmenghasilkankontribusibesarterhadapkeberlanjutanproduktivitas. Cox, Eva. 1995. A Truly Civil Society. Sydney:ABCBoook Fukuyama, F. 1995. Trust: The Social Virtues and The Creation of Prosperity. New York: Free Press. Partha D., Ismail S. 1999. Social Capital A Multifaceted Perspective. Washington DC: The World Bank. Solow, R. M. 1999. Notes Social Capital and Economic Performance. In Partha D., Ismail S., 1999. Social Capital A Multifaceted Perspective. Washington DC: The World Bank. Diunduhdari: p2dtk.bappenas.go.id/downlot.php?...Modal%20S... ……….15/12/2012

7. MODAL SOSIAL: DEFINISI, DEMENSI, DAN TIPOLOGI Agus Supriono2, Dance J. Flassy3, Sasli Rais4 2Staf PengajarSosialEkonomiPertanian – FakultasPertanian – UniversitasJember; Mahasiswa S3, FakultasEkonomi, Universitas Gajah Mada, Yogyakarta. 3Sekretaris Badan Perencanaan Pembangunan Daerah Provinsi Papua Barat, Mahasiswa S3 FakultasIlmuSosialdanPolitik (FISIP) – Universitas Indonesia. 4Staf Pengajar STIE PengembanganBisnisdanManajemen - Jakarta, Tim TeknisProject Management Unit – Program NasionalPemberdayaanMasyarakatMandiri Daerah Tertinggaldan Khusus – Bappenas. Menurut Cohen danPrusak L. (2001), modal sosialadalahsebagaisetiaphubungan yang terjadidandiikatolehsuatukepercayaan(trust), kesalingpengertian (mutual understanding), dannilai-nilaibersama (shared value) yang mengikatanggotakelompokuntuk membuat kemungkinan aksi bersama dapat dilakukan secara efisien dan efektif. Hasbullah (2006) menjelaskan, modal sosialsebagaisegalasesuatu hal yang berkaitan dengan kerja sama dalam masyarakat atau bangsa untuk mencapai kapasitashidup yang lebihbaik, ditopangolehnilai-nilaidannorma yang menjadiunsurunsurutamanya sepetri trust (rasa saling mempercayai), keimbal-balikan, aturan-aturan kolektifdalamsuatumasyarakatataubangsadansejenisnya. Cohen, S., Prusak L. 2001. In Good Company: How Social Capital Makes Organization Work. London: Harvard Business Pres. Hasbullah, J., 2006. Sosial Kapital: Menuju Keunggulan Budaya Manusia Indonesia. Jakarta: MR-United Press. Diunduhdari: p2dtk.bappenas.go.id/downlot.php?...Modal%20S... ……….15/12/2012

8. MODAL SOSIAL: DEFINISI, DEMENSI, DAN TIPOLOGI Agus Supriono2, Dance J. Flassy3, Sasli Rais4 2Staf PengajarSosialEkonomiPertanian – FakultasPertanian – UniversitasJember; Mahasiswa S3, FakultasEkonomi, Universitas Gajah Mada, Yogyakarta. 3Sekretaris Badan Perencanaan Pembangunan Daerah Provinsi Papua Barat, Mahasiswa S3 FakultasIlmuSosialdanPolitik (FISIP) – Universitas Indonesia. 4Staf Pengajar STIE PengembanganBisnisdanManajemen - Jakarta, Tim TeknisProject Management Unit – Program NasionalPemberdayaanMasyarakatMandiri Daerah Tertinggaldan Khusus – Bappenas. Dimensi Modal Sosial Modal sosial (social capital) berbedadefinisidanterminologinyadengan human capital (Fukuyama, 1995). Bentuk human capital adalah ‘pengetahuan’ dan ‘ketrampilan’ manusia. Ivestasi human capital kovensionaladalahdalambentuksepertihalnyapendidikanuniversitas, pelatihanmenjadiseorangmekanikatau programmer computer, ataumenyelenggarakanpendidikan yang tepatlainnya. Sedangkan modal sosialadalahkapabilitas yang munculdarikepercayaanumumdidalamsebuahmasyarakatataubagian-bagiantertentudarinya. Modal sosialdapatdilembagakandalambentukkelompoksosial paling kecilatau paling mendasardanjugakelompok-kelompokmasyarakat paling besarsepertihalnyanegara (bangsa). Modal sosial ditransmisikan melalui mekanisme - mekanisme kultural seperti agama, tradisi, ataukebiasaansejarah (Fukuyama, 2000). Modal sosialdibutuhkanuntukmenciptakanjeniskomunitas moral yang tidakbisadiperolehsepertidalamkasusbentukbentuk human capital. Akuisisi modal sosialmemerlukanpembiasaanterhadapnorma-norma moral sebuahkomunitasdandalamkonteksnyasekaligusmengadopsikebajikan-kebajikansepertikesetiaan, kejujuran, dan dependability. Modal sosiallebihdidasarkanpadakebajikankebajikansosialumum. Fukuyama, F. 1995. Social Capital and The Global Economy. Foreign Affairs, 74(5), 89-103. In ElinorOstrom and T.K. Ahn. 2003. Foundation of Social Capital. Massachusetts: Edward Elgar Publishing Limited. --------------. 2000. Social Capital and Civil Society. International Monetary Fund Working Paper, WP/00/74, 1-8. In ElinorOstrom and T.K. Ahn. 2003. Foundation of Social Capital. Massachusetts: Edward Elgar Publishing Limited. Diunduhdari: p2dtk.bappenas.go.id/downlot.php?...Modal%20S... ……….15/12/2012

9. MODAL SOSIAL: DEFINISI, DEMENSI, DAN TIPOLOGI Agus Supriono2, Dance J. Flassy3, Sasli Rais4 2Staf PengajarSosialEkonomiPertanian – FakultasPertanian – UniversitasJember; Mahasiswa S3, FakultasEkonomi, Universitas Gajah Mada, Yogyakarta. 3Sekretaris Badan Perencanaan Pembangunan Daerah Provinsi Papua Barat, Mahasiswa S3 FakultasIlmuSosialdanPolitik (FISIP) – Universitas Indonesia. 4Staf Pengajar STIE PengembanganBisnisdanManajemen - Jakarta, Tim TeknisProject Management Unit – Program NasionalPemberdayaanMasyarakatMandiri Daerah Tertinggaldan Khusus – Bappenas. Bank Dunia (1999) meyakini modal sosialadalahsebagaisesuatu yang merujukkedemensiinstitusional, hubungan-hubungan yang tercipta, dannorma-norma yang membentukkualitassertakuantitashubungansosialdalammasyarakat. Modal sosialbukanlahsekedarderetanjumlahinstitusiataukelompok yang menopang(underpinning) kehidupansosial, melainkandenganspektrum yang lebihluas. Yaitusebagaiperekat(social glue) yang menjagakesatuananggotakelompoksecarabersama-sama. Dimensi modal sosialtumbuhdidalamsuatumasyarakat yang didalamnyaberisinilaidannormasertapola-polainteraksisosialdalammengaturkehidupankesehariananggotanya (WoolcockdanNarayan, 2000). Olehkarenaitu Adler dan Kwon (2000) menyatakan, dimensi modal sosialadalahmerupakangambarandariketerikatan internal yang mewarnaistrukturkolektifdanmemberikankohesifitasdankeuntungan-keuntunganbersamadariproses dinamika sosial yang terjadi di dalam masyarakat. Demensi modal sosialmenggambarkansegalasesuatu yang membuatmasyarakatbersekutu untuk mencapai tujuan bersama atas dasar kebersamaan, serta didalamnya diikat olehnilai-nilaidannorma-norma yang tumbuhdandipatuhi (Dasguptadan Ismail, 1999). Demensi modal sosialinherendalamstrukturrelasisosialdanjaringansosialdidalamsuatumasyarakat yang menciptakanberbagairagamkewajibansosial, menciptakaniklimsalingpercaya, membawasaluraninformasi, danmenetapkannorma-norma, sertasangsi-sangsisosialbagiparaanggotamasyarakattersebut (Coleman, 1999). Adler, P., Kwon S. 2000. Social Capital: the good, the bad and the ugly. In E. Lesser (Ed). Knowledge and Social Capital: Foundations and Applications. Butterworth-Heinemmann. Coleman, J. 1999. Social Capital in the Creation of Human Capital. Cambridge Mass: Harvard University Press. Dasgupta, P., Ismail S. 1999. Social Capital A Multifaceted Perspective. Washington DC: World Bank. Woolcock, M. & D. Narayan. 2000. Social Capital: Implication for Development Theory, Research, and Policy. World Bank Research Observer, 15(2), August, 225-49. In ElinorOstrom and T.K. Ahn. 2003. Foundation of Social Capital. Massachusetts: Edward Elgar Publishing Limited. Diunduhdari: p2dtk.bappenas.go.id/downlot.php?...Modal%20S... ……….15/12/2012

10. MODAL SOSIAL: DEFINISI, DEMENSI, DAN TIPOLOGI Agus Supriono2, Dance J. Flassy3, Sasli Rais4 2Staf PengajarSosialEkonomiPertanian – FakultasPertanian – UniversitasJember; Mahasiswa S3, FakultasEkonomi, Universitas Gajah Mada, Yogyakarta. 3Sekretaris Badan Perencanaan Pembangunan Daerah Provinsi Papua Barat, Mahasiswa S3 FakultasIlmuSosialdanPolitik (FISIP) – Universitas Indonesia. 4Staf Pengajar STIE PengembanganBisnisdanManajemen - Jakarta, Tim TeknisProject Management Unit – Program NasionalPemberdayaanMasyarakatMandiri Daerah Tertinggaldan Khusus – Bappenas. Beberapaacuannilai dan unsur yang merupakanruh modal sosial antara lain: sikapyang partisipatif, sikap yang salingmemperhatikan, salingmemberidanmenerima, salingpercayamempercayaidandiperkuatolehnilai-nilaidannorma-norma yang mendukungnya. Unsur lain yang memegangperananpentingadalahkemauanmasyarakatuntuksecaraterusmenerusproaktifbaikdalammempertahakannilai, membentukjaringankerjasamamaupundenganpenciptaankreasidanide-idebaru. Inilahjatidiri modal sosial yang sebenarnya. MenurutHasbullah (2006), demensiintitelaahdari modal sosialterletakpadabagaimanakemampuanmasyarakatuntukbekerjasamamembangunsuatujaringangunamencapaitujuanbersama. Kerjasamatersebutdiwarnaiolehsuatupolainterrelasi yang imbalbalikdansalingmenguntungkansertadibangundiataskepercayaan yang ditopangolehnorma-normadannilai-nilaisosial yang positifdankuat. Kekuatantersebutakan maksimal jika didukung oleh semangat proaktif membuat jalinan hubungan diatas prinsip-prinsipsikap yang partisipatif, sikap yang salingmemperhatikan, salingmemberidanmenerima, salingpercayamempercayaidandiperkuatolehnilai-nilaidannorma-norma yang mendukungnya. Hasbullah, J., 2006. Sosial Kapital: Menuju Keunggulan Budaya Manusia Indonesia. Jakarta: MR-United Press. Diunduhdari: p2dtk.bappenas.go.id/downlot.php?...Modal%20S... ……….15/12/2012

11. MODAL SOSIAL: DEFINISI, DEMENSI, DAN TIPOLOGI Agus Supriono2, Dance J. Flassy3, Sasli Rais4 2Staf PengajarSosialEkonomiPertanian – FakultasPertanian – UniversitasJember; Mahasiswa S3, FakultasEkonomi, Universitas Gajah Mada, Yogyakarta. 3Sekretaris Badan Perencanaan Pembangunan Daerah Provinsi Papua Barat, Mahasiswa S3 FakultasIlmuSosialdanPolitik (FISIP) – Universitas Indonesia. 4Staf Pengajar STIE PengembanganBisnisdanManajemen - Jakarta, Tim TeknisProject Management Unit – Program NasionalPemberdayaanMasyarakatMandiri Daerah Tertinggaldan Khusus – Bappenas. Tipologi Modal Sosial Pakar-pakar yang memiliki perhatian terhadap modal sosial pada umumnya tertarik untuk mengkajikerekatanhubungansosialdimanamasyarakatterlibatdidalamnya, terutamakaitannyadenganpola-polainteraksisosialatauhubungansosialantaranggotamasyarakatataukelompokdalamsuatukegiatansosial. Bagaimanakeanggotaandanaktivitasmerekadalamsuatuasosiasisosialmerupakanhal yang selalumenarikuntukdikaji. Demensi lain yang jugasangatmenarikperhatianadalah yang berkaitandengantipologi modal sosial, yaitubagaimanaperbedaanpola-polainteraksiberikutkonsekuensinyaantara modal sosial yang berbentukbonding/exclusive atau bridging atau inclusive. Keduanyamemilikiimplikasi yang berbedapadahasil-hasil yang dapatdicapaidanpengaruhpengaruh yang dapatmunculdalamproseskehidupandanpembangunanmasyarakat. MenurutWoolcock (1998), padapola yang berbentukbonding atau exclusive padaumumnyanuansahubungan yang terbentukmengarahkepolainward looking. Sedangkanpadapola yang berbentukbridging atau inclusive lebihmengarahkekepola outward looking. Woolcock, M. 1998. Social Capital and Economic Development: Toward a Theoretical Synthesis and Policy Framework. Theory and Society, 27 (1),151-208. In ElinorOstrom and T.K. Ahn. 2003. Foundation of Social Capital. Massachusetts: Edward Elgar Publishing Limited. Diunduhdari: p2dtk.bappenas.go.id/downlot.php?...Modal%20S... ……….15/12/2012

12. MODAL SOSIAL: DEFINISI, DEMENSI, DAN TIPOLOGI Agus Supriono2, Dance J. Flassy3, Sasli Rais4 2Staf PengajarSosialEkonomiPertanian – FakultasPertanian – UniversitasJember; Mahasiswa S3, FakultasEkonomi, Universitas Gajah Mada, Yogyakarta. 3Sekretaris Badan Perencanaan Pembangunan Daerah Provinsi Papua Barat, Mahasiswa S3 FakultasIlmuSosialdanPolitik (FISIP) – Universitas Indonesia. 4Staf Pengajar STIE PengembanganBisnisdanManajemen - Jakarta, Tim TeknisProject Management Unit – Program NasionalPemberdayaanMasyarakatMandiri Daerah Tertinggaldan Khusus – Bappenas. Modal Sosial Terikat (Bonding Social Capital) Modal sosialterikatadalahcenderungbersifateksklusif. Apa yang menjadikarakteristikdasar yang melekatpadatipologiini, sekaligussebagaicirikhasnya, dalamkontekside, relasidanperhatian, adalahlebihberorientasikedalam(inward looking) dibandingkandenganberorientasikeluar (outward looking). Ragammasyarakat yang menjadianggotakelompokinipadaumumnyahomogenius (cenderunghomogen). The bonding social capital ini dikenal pula sebagai ciri sacred society. Menurut Putman (1993), padamasyarakat sacred society dogma tertentumendominasidanmempertahankanstrukturmasyarakat yang totalitarian, hierarchical, dantertutup. Di dalampolainteraksisosialsehari-hariselaludituntunolehnilai-nilaidannormanorma yang menguntungkan level hierarkitertentudanfeodal. MenurutHasbullah (2006), padamayarakat yang bonded atau inward looking atau sacred, meskipunhubungansosial yang terciptamemilikitingkatkohesifitas yang kuat, akantetapikurangmerefleksikankemampuanmasyarakattersebutuntukmenciptakandanmemiliki modal sosial yang kuat. Kekuatan yang tumbuhsekedardalambataskelompokdalamkeadaantertentu, setrukturhierarkifeodal, kohesifitas yang bersifatbonding. Diunduhdari: p2dtk.bappenas.go.id/downlot.php?...Modal%20S... ……….15/12/2012

13. MODAL SOSIAL: DEFINISI, DEMENSI, DAN TIPOLOGI Agus Supriono2, Dance J. Flassy3, Sasli Rais4 2Staf PengajarSosialEkonomiPertanian – FakultasPertanian – UniversitasJember; Mahasiswa S3, FakultasEkonomi, Universitas Gajah Mada, Yogyakarta. 3Sekretaris Badan Perencanaan Pembangunan Daerah Provinsi Papua Barat, Mahasiswa S3 FakultasIlmuSosialdanPolitik (FISIP) – Universitas Indonesia. 4Staf Pengajar STIE PengembanganBisnisdanManajemen - Jakarta, Tim TeknisProject Management Unit – Program NasionalPemberdayaanMasyarakatMandiri Daerah Tertinggaldan Khusus – Bappenas. Modal Sosial yang Menjembatani(Bridging Social Capital) MenurutHasbullah (2006), bentuk modal sosial yang menjembataniiniinibiasajugadisebutbentuk modern darisuatupengelompokan, group, asosiasi, ataumasyarakat. Prinsip-prinsip pengorganisasian yang dianut didasarkan pada prinsip-prinsip universal tentang: (a) persamaan, (b) kebebasan, serta (c) nilai-nilai kemajemukan dan humanitarian (kemanusiaan, terbuka, danmandiri). Prinsippersamaan, bahwasanyasetiapanggotadalamsuatukelompokmasyarakatmemilikihak-hakdankewajiban yang sama. Setiapkeputusankelompokberdasarkankesepakatan yang egaliterdarisetiapanggotakelompok. Pimpinankelompokmasyarakathanyamenjalankankesepakatan-kesepakatan yang telahditentukanolehparaanggota kelompok. Prinsipkebebasan, bahwasanyasetiapanggotakelompokbebasberbicara, mengemukakanpendapatdanide yang dapatmengembangkankelompoktersebut. Iklimkebebasan yang terciptamemungkinkanide-idekreatifmunculdaridalam (kelompok), yaitudariberagampikirananggotanya yang kelakakanmemperkayaide-idekolektif yang tumbuhdalamkelompoktersebut. Prinsip kemajemukan dan humanitarian, bahwasanya nilai-nilai kemanusiaan, penghormatanterhadaphakasasisetiapanggotadanorang lain yang merupakanprinsipdasardalampengembanganasosiasi, group, kelompok, atausuatumasyarakat. Kehendakkuatuntukmembantuorang lain, merasakanpenderitaanorang lain, berimpatiterhadapsituasi yang dihadapiorang lain, adalahmerupakandasar-dasaride humanitarian. Diunduhdari: p2dtk.bappenas.go.id/downlot.php?...Modal%20S... ……….15/12/2012

14. MODAL SOSIAL: DEFINISI, DEMENSI, DAN TIPOLOGI Agus Supriono2, Dance J. Flassy3, Sasli Rais4 2Staf PengajarSosialEkonomiPertanian – FakultasPertanian – UniversitasJember; Mahasiswa S3, FakultasEkonomi, Universitas Gajah Mada, Yogyakarta. 3Sekretaris Badan Perencanaan Pembangunan Daerah Provinsi Papua Barat, Mahasiswa S3 FakultasIlmuSosialdanPolitik (FISIP) – Universitas Indonesia. 4Staf Pengajar STIE PengembanganBisnisdanManajemen - Jakarta, Tim TeknisProject Management Unit – Program NasionalPemberdayaanMasyarakatMandiri Daerah Tertinggaldan Khusus – Bappenas. Masyarakat yang menyandarkan pada bridging social capital biasanyahiterogendariberbagairagamunsurlatarbelakangbudayadansuku. Setiapanggotakelompokmemilikiakses yang samauntukmembuatjaringanataukoneksikeluarkelompoknyadenganprinsippersamaan, kemanusiaan, dankebebasan yang dimiliki. Bridging social capital akanmembukajalanuntuklebihcepatberkembangdengankemampuanmenciptakannetworking yang kuat, menggerakkanidentitas yang lebihluasdan reciprocity yang lebihvariatif, sertaakumulasiide yang lebihmemungkinkanuntukberkembangsesuaidenganprinsip-prinsippembangunan yang lebihditerimasecara universal. MenurutColemen (1999), tipologimasyarakatbridging social capital dalamgerakannyalebihmemberikantekananpadademensifight for (berjuanguntuk). Perjuanganinimengarah kepada pencarian jawaban bersama untuk menyelesaikan masalah yang dihadapi olehkelompok (padasituasitertentu, termasuk problem didalamkelompokatau problem yang terjadidiluarkelompoktersebut). Padakeadaantertentujiwagerakanlebihdiwarnaiolehsemangatfight againts yang bersifatmemberiperlawananterhadapancamanberupakemungkinanruntuhnyasimbul-simbul dan kepercayaan-kepercayaantradisional yang dianutolehkelompokmasyarakat. Padakelompokmasyarakat yang demikianini, perilakukelompok yang dominanadalahsekedarsense of solidarity (solidarity making). Diunduhdari: p2dtk.bappenas.go.id/downlot.php?...Modal%20S... ……….15/12/2012

15. MODAL SOSIAL: DEFINISI, DEMENSI, DAN TIPOLOGI Agus Supriono2, Dance J. Flassy3, Sasli Rais4 2Staf PengajarSosialEkonomiPertanian – FakultasPertanian – UniversitasJember; Mahasiswa S3, FakultasEkonomi, Universitas Gajah Mada, Yogyakarta. 3Sekretaris Badan Perencanaan Pembangunan Daerah Provinsi Papua Barat, Mahasiswa S3 FakultasIlmuSosialdanPolitik (FISIP) – Universitas Indonesia. 4Staf Pengajar STIE PengembanganBisnisdanManajemen - Jakarta, Tim TeknisProject Management Unit – Program NasionalPemberdayaanMasyarakatMandiri Daerah Tertinggaldan Khusus – Bappenas. Bentuk modal sosial yang menjembatani(bridging capital social) umumnyamampumemberikankontribusibesarbagiperkembangankemajuandankekuatanmasyarakat. Hasil-hasilkajiandibanyaknegaramenunjukkanbahwadengantumbuhnyabentuk modal sosial yang menjembataniinimemungkinanperkembangandibanyakdemensikehidupan, terkontrolnyakorupsi, semakinefisiennyapekerjaan-pekerjaanpemerintah, mempercepatkeberhasilanupayapenanggulangankemiskinan, kualitashidupmanusiaakanmeningkatkandanbangsamenjadijauhlebihkuat. Modal Sosial Terikat dan Modal Sosial Menjembatani Diunduhdari: p2dtk.bappenas.go.id/downlot.php?...Modal%20S... ……….15/12/2012

16. MODAL SOSIAL: DEFINISI, DEMENSI, DAN TIPOLOGI Agus Supriono2, Dance J. Flassy3, Sasli Rais4 2Staf PengajarSosialEkonomiPertanian – FakultasPertanian – UniversitasJember; Mahasiswa S3, FakultasEkonomi, Universitas Gajah Mada, Yogyakarta. 3Sekretaris Badan Perencanaan Pembangunan Daerah Provinsi Papua Barat, Mahasiswa S3 FakultasIlmuSosialdanPolitik (FISIP) – Universitas Indonesia. 4Staf Pengajar STIE PengembanganBisnisdanManajemen - Jakarta, Tim TeknisProject Management Unit – Program NasionalPemberdayaanMasyarakatMandiri Daerah Tertinggaldan Khusus – Bappenas. Secaraumum modal sosialadalahmerupakanhubungan-hubungan yang terciptadannorma-norma yang membentukkualitasdankuantitashubungansosialdalammasyarakatdalamspektrum yang luas, yaitusebagaiperekatsosial(social glue) yang menjaga kesatuan anggota masyarakat (bangsa) secara bersama-sama. Demensiintitelaahdari modal sosialterletakpadabagaimanakemampuanmasyarakat (bangsa) untukbekerjasamamembangunsuatujaringangunamencapaitujuanbersama, dimana kerjasama ini diwarnai oleh suatu pola inter-relasi yang imbal balik dan saling menguntungkansertadibangundiataskepercayaan yang ditopangolehnorma-normadannilai-nilaisosial yang positifdankuat. Adapunkekuatankerjasamainiakan maksimal jika didukung oleh semangat proaktif membuat jalinan hubungan diatas prinsip-prinsipsikap yang partisipatif, sikap yang salingmemperhatikan, salingmemberidanmenerima, salingpercayamempercayai, dandiperkuatolehnilai-nilaidannorma-norma yang mendukungnya. Wujuddaritipologi modal sosialinidapatberupa modal sosialterikat(bonding social capital) dan modal sosial yang menjembatasi (bridging social capital). Tipologi modal sosialterikatmemilikicirikhasdidalamkontekside, relasidanperhatian, adalahlebihberorientasikedalam(inward looking), sedangkanpadatipologi modal sosial yang menjembatanilebihberorientasikeluar(outward looking). Diunduhdari: p2dtk.bappenas.go.id/downlot.php?...Modal%20S... ……….15/12/2012

17. SOCIAL CAPITAL AND HOUSEHOLD SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT POLICIES: A CASE STUDY IN MYTILENE, GREECE Nikoleta Jones*, Constantinos P. Halvadakis and Costas M. Sophoulis Department of Environment, University of the Aegean, Mytilene, Lesvos, Greece Environmental Politics. Vol. 20, No. 2, March 2011, 264–283 Four main components of social capital are identified: social trust, institutional trust, social networks and compliance with social norms. A theoretical analysis explores the links between these components and environmental behaviour and policy in order to lay the ground for an investigation of the influence of social capital on the implementation of environmental policy. The influence of social capital on citizens’ behaviour connected with two solid waste management policies is investigated empirically by means of a survey. The findings indicate some differentiation regarding the influence of the components of social capital upon environmental behaviour in the context of different environmental policies. Diunduhdari: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/fenp20 ……….15/12/2012

18. SOCIAL CAPITAL AND HOUSEHOLD SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT POLICIES: A CASE STUDY IN MYTILENE, GREECE Nikoleta Jones*, Constantinos P. Halvadakis and Costas M. Sophoulis Department of Environment, University of the Aegean, Mytilene, Lesvos, Greece Environmental Politics. Vol. 20, No. 2, March 2011, 264–283 We aim here to investigate further the influence of social capital, as an individual characteristic, on environmental behaviour connected with environmental policy implementation. In particular, environmental behaviour is explored as a response to the implementation of two environmental policies aimed at the general public’s management of household solid waste in Mytilene, Greece. The level of compliance and cooperation of citizens in relation to two different types of policies – a compulsory waste regulation scheme and a voluntary recycling programme – will be explored by taking into consideration four components of social capital: social trust, institutional trust, social networks and compliance with social norms. Diunduhdari: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/fenp20 ……….15/12/2012

19. SOCIAL CAPITAL AND HOUSEHOLD SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT POLICIES: A CASE STUDY IN MYTILENE, GREECE Nikoleta Jones*, Constantinos P. Halvadakis and Costas M. Sophoulis Department of Environment, University of the Aegean, Mytilene, Lesvos, Greece Environmental Politics. Vol. 20, No. 2, March 2011, 264–283 Social capital and environmental behaviour Social capital may be regarded as one of the most successful exports from the field of sociology to other scientific fields (Portes 2000). The wide use of the social capital concept has also been accompanied by significant criticism and discussion regarding issues of its definition, consequences and measurement (e.g. Levi 1996, Newton 2001). Despite the fact that there is no widely accepted definition of social capital, it has been successfully utilised in several scientific fields as an explanatory parameter for individual and collective issues (e.g. Woodhouse 2006, Nyqvist et al. 2008). The analysis is conducted by dividing social capital into four commonly used indicators: social trust, institutional trust, compliance with social norms and social networks. Levi, M., 1996. Social and unsocial capital: a review essay of Robert Putnam’s Making Democracy Work. Politics and Society, 24, 45–55.Newton, K., 2001. Trust, social capital, civil society, and democracy. International Political Science Review, 22, 201–214. Nyqvist, F., et al., 2008. The effect of social capital in health: the case of two language groups in Finland. Health and Place, 14, 347–360. Portes, A., 2000. The two meanings of social capital. Sociological Forum, 15, 1–12. Woodhouse, A., 2006. Social capital and economic development in regional Australia: a case study. Journal of Rural Studies, 22, 83–94. Diunduhdari: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/fenp20 ……….15/12/2012

20. SOCIAL CAPITAL AND HOUSEHOLD SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT POLICIES: A CASE STUDY IN MYTILENE, GREECE Nikoleta Jones*, Constantinos P. Halvadakis and Costas M. Sophoulis Department of Environment, University of the Aegean, Mytilene, Lesvos, Greece Environmental Politics. Vol. 20, No. 2, March 2011, 264–283 Social trust Trust is regarded as a core element of social capital (Putnam 2000) and is included in most empirical studies (van Oorschot et al. 2006). Coleman (1990) emphasised symmetric relationships of interpersonal trust thus examining trust also on an individual level. A significant distinction within social trust is between generalised and particularised trust (Uslaner and Conley 2003). The former refers to trust in other people in general whereas the latter refers to trust towards certain social groups such as friends and neighbours. The influence of trust has been used for the explanation of environmental behaviour. Higher levels of social trust may imply a more positive perception of the environmental behaviour of fellow citizens (Wagner and Fernandez-Gimenez 2008). The individual behaviour is expected to be influenced by the perception that other members of the community act in an environmentally responsible manner (Wondolleck and Yaffee 2000). Furthermore, particularised trust towards individuals connected with environmental management initiatives (e.g. ministry employees) may also influence environmental behaviour and individual attitudes towards a proposed policy (Stern 2008). Finally, trust is connected with the willingness of stakeholders to participate in decision-making processes, the level of their cooperation with other stakeholders and the outcome of partnerships for the management of natural resources (Focht and Trachtenberg 2005). Putnam, R., 2000. Bowling alone: the collapse and revival of American community. New York: Simon & Schuster Paperbacks. Stern, M.J., 2008. The power of trust: toward a theory of local opposition to neighboring protected areas. Society and Natural Resources, 21, 859–875. Wagner, C.L. and Fernandez-Gimenez, M.E., 2008. Does community-based collaborative resource management increase social capital? Society and Natural Resources, 21, 324–244. Diunduhdari: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/fenp20 ……….15/12/2012

21. SOCIAL CAPITAL AND HOUSEHOLD SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT POLICIES: A CASE STUDY IN MYTILENE, GREECE Nikoleta Jones*, Constantinos P. Halvadakis and Costas M. Sophoulis Department of Environment, University of the Aegean, Mytilene, Lesvos, Greece Environmental Politics. Vol. 20, No. 2, March 2011, 264–283 Institutional trust A second element of social capital is trust of institutions. Trust in institutions was identified as a social capital component through the work of Coleman (1990). Since then institutional trust has been included in several empirical studies of social capital (e.g. Paxton 1999). This element may be regarded as a reflection of the perceived level of institutional effectiveness and an indicator of the satisfaction of citizens with the performance of institutions (Kim 2005). Perception of trust towards institutions involved in environmental policy procedures may also influence the environmental behaviour of individuals (Beierle and Cayford 2002, Jones et al. 2009). Higher levels of institutional trust, especially towards political institutions, lead citizens to be more willing to accept changes following the application of an environmental policy (Cvetkovich and Winter 2003). The trust in actors responsible for providing information on environmental issues is expected to influence the level of acceptance of this information by citizens (Groothuis and Miller 1997, Petts 1998). Finally, institutional trust is also expected to influence the level of participation of stakeholders in decision-making processes (Focht and Trachtenberg 2005). Cvetkovich, G. and Winter, P.L., 2003. Trust and social representations of the management of threatened and endangered species. Environment and Behaviour, 35, 286–307. Focht, W. and Trachtenberg, Z., 2005. A trust-based guide to stakeholder participation. In: P. Sabatier et al., eds. Swimming upstream. Collaborative approaches to watershed management. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Groothuis, P.A. and Miller, G.A., 1997. The role of social distrust in risk–benefit analysis: a study of the siting of a hazardous waste disposal facility. Journal of Risk and Uncertainty, 15, 241–257. Jones, N., et al., 2009. Social capital and environmental policy instruments. EnvironmentalPolitics, 18 (4), 595–611. Kim, J.Y., 2005. ‘Bowling together’ isn’t a cure-all: the relationship between social capital and political trust in South Korea. International Political Science Review, 26, 193–213. Diunduhdari: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/fenp20 ……….15/12/2012

22. SOCIAL CAPITAL AND HOUSEHOLD SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT POLICIES: A CASE STUDY IN MYTILENE, GREECE Nikoleta Jones*, Constantinos P. Halvadakis and Costas M. Sophoulis Department of Environment, University of the Aegean, Mytilene, Lesvos, Greece Environmental Politics. Vol. 20, No. 2, March 2011, 264–283 Compliance with social norms Coleman (1990) identified social norms on a micro level as elements that ‘specify which actions are regarded by a set of persons as proper or correct’ norms may be ‘internalised’ and influence an individual’s behaviour (Bratt 1999) through the creation of personal norms (Schwartz 1977). Individuals who tend to disregard social norms may present antisocial behaviour (Corral-Verdugo and Frias-Armenta 2006). The influence of social and personal norms has been extensively analysed (de Kort et al. 2008). It is claimed that norms may be used in order to explain environmental behaviour (Nordlund and Garvill 2002). Individuals who tend to present antisocial behaviour (noncompliance to social norms) may also present anti-environmental behaviour. Furthermore, in communities where individuals tend to comply with social norms there is a higher probability that both internal and external control will be imposed either in the means of penalties, social exclusion or personal disgrace (Pretty 1998). Bratt, C., 1999. The impact of norms and assumed consequences on recycling behaviour. Environment and Behaviour, 31, 630–656. Coleman, J.S., 1990. Foundations of social theory. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Corral-Verdugo, V. and Frias-Armenta, M., 2006. Personal normative beliefs, antisocial behaviour, and residential water conservation. Environment and Behaviour, 38 (3), 406–421. De Kort, Y.A.W., McCalley, L.T., and Midden, C.J.H., 2008. Persuasive trash cans: activation of littering norms by design. Environment and Behaviour, 40, 870–891. Nordlund, A.M. and Garvill, J., 2002. Value structures behind proenvironmentalbehaviour. Environment and Behaviour, 34, 740–756. Pretty, J., 1998. Participatory learning in rural Africa: towards better decisions for agricultural development. In: F.H.J.M. Coenen, D. Huitemaand, and L.J. O’Toole, eds. Participation and the quality of environmental decision-making. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 251–266 Diunduhdari: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/fenp20 ……….15/12/2012

23. SOCIAL CAPITAL AND HOUSEHOLD SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT POLICIES: A CASE STUDY IN MYTILENE, GREECE Nikoleta Jones*, Constantinos P. Halvadakis and Costas M. Sophoulis Department of Environment, University of the Aegean, Mytilene, Lesvos, Greece Environmental Politics. Vol. 20, No. 2, March 2011, 264–283 Social networks The most common structural indicator utilised in the social capital literature is social networks (Coleman 1990). Social networks have been widely analysed in the social sciences through different theories (Granovetter 1973). In the context of social capital literature, social networks were first analysed by Bourdieu (1986) mainly to emphasise the benefits arising from individuals’ participation in such networks. Through this theory, social networks are regarded as indicators of the tendency of an individual to participate in collective issues and his/her level of interest in the common good. Especially regarding formal social networks, these often refer to membership (passive participation) or volunteerism (active participation) in organised groups such as non-governmental organisations (van Oorschot et al. 2006). However, social networks may also refer to the interconnections between different organisations (Schneider et al. 2003). Bourdieu, P., 1986. The forms of capital. In: J.G. Richardson, ed. Handbook of theory and research for the sociology of education. New York: Greenwood Press, 241–258. Coleman, J.S., 1990. Foundations of social theory. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Granovetter, M., 1973. The strength of weak ties. American Journal of Sociology, 78, 1360–1379. Schneider, M., et al., 2003. Building consensual institutions: networks and the national estuary program. American Journal of Political Science, 47, 143–158. van Oorschot, W., Arts, W., and Gelissen, J., 2006. Social capital in Europe. Measurement and social and regional distribution of a multifaceted phenomenon. ActaSociologica, 49, 149–176. Diunduhdari: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/fenp20 ……….15/12/2012

24. SOCIAL CAPITAL AND HOUSEHOLD SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT POLICIES: A CASE STUDY IN MYTILENE, GREECE Nikoleta Jones*, Constantinos P. Halvadakis and Costas M. Sophoulis Department of Environment, University of the Aegean, Mytilene, Lesvos, Greece Environmental Politics. Vol. 20, No. 2, March 2011, 264–283 Regarding the influence of these structural elements on environmental behaviour, the present analysis emphasises the involvement of individuals in formal networks. It is assumed that individuals who participate in such networks are also recipients of a higher flow of information on environmental issues. This information may pass from management actors to citizens in the context of an environmental policy and vice versa. Furthermore, it may refer to information distributed among citizens through informal networks (Miller and Buys 2008). Although provision of information alone is not enough to change environmental habits (Kollmuss and Agyeman 2002), it may contribute to the diffusion of knowledge on environmental issues, such as improved environmental management practices and increasing awareness of relevant issues (Cramb 2005). Apart from the provision of information, social networks are also connected with increased environmental awareness and activation for environmental issues (Wakefield et al. 2006). Cramb, R.A., 2005. Social capital and soil conservation: evidence from the Philippines. The Australian Journal of Agricultural and Resource Economics, 49, 211–226. Kollmuss, A. and Agyeman, J., 2002. Mind the gap: why do people act environmentally and what are the barriers to pro-environmental behaviour? Environmental Education Research, 8, 239–260. Miller, E. and Buys, L., 2008. The impact of social capital on residential water-affecting behaviours in a drought-prone Australian community. Society and Natural Resources, 21, 244–257. Wakefield, S., et al., 2006. Taking environmental action: the role of local composition, context, and collective. Environmental Management, 37, 40–53. Diunduhdari: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/fenp20 ……….15/12/2012

25. SOCIAL CAPITAL AND HOUSEHOLD SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT POLICIES: A CASE STUDY IN MYTILENE, GREECE Nikoleta Jones*, Constantinos P. Halvadakis and Costas M. Sophoulis Department of Environment, University of the Aegean, Mytilene, Lesvos, Greece Environmental Politics. Vol. 20, No. 2, March 2011, 264–283 Interconnection of social capital components Social trust is connected with social networks through the enforcement of participation (Newton and Norris 2000). Individuals who tend to trust their fellow citizens present a higher tendency of participating in activities for the resolution of environmental problems and an increased environmental awareness (Lubell 2002). This is also connected to an individual’s perception that certain members of the community behave in an environmentally responsible manner (Wondolleck and Yaffee 2000). Furthermore, trust and compliance with norms are both linked with an individual’s perception of the behaviour of fellow citizens, as analysed both by Putnam (2000). Putnam et al. (1993) underlined the importance of norms of reciprocity, which are also connected with the symmetric relationships of trust identified by Coleman (1990). Lubell, M., 2002. Environmental activism as collective action. Environment and Behaviour 34, 431–454. Newton, K. and Norris, P., 2000. Confidence in public institutions: faith, culture, or performance? In: S.J. Pharr and R. Putnam, eds. Disaffected democracies: what’s troubling the trilateral countries. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 52–73. Putnam, R., 2000. Bowling alone: the collapse and revival of American community. New York: Simon & Schuster Paperbacks. Putnam, R., Leonardi, R., and Nanetti, R.Y., 1993. Making democracy work: civic traditions in modern Italy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Wondolleck, J.M., and Yaffee, S.L., 2000. Making collaboration work. Lessons from innovation in natural resource management. Washington, DC: Island Press. Diunduhdari: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/fenp20 ……….15/12/2012

26. SOCIAL CAPITAL AND HOUSEHOLD SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT POLICIES: A CASE STUDY IN MYTILENE, GREECE Nikoleta Jones*, Constantinos P. Halvadakis and Costas M. Sophoulis Department of Environment, University of the Aegean, Mytilene, Lesvos, Greece Environmental Politics. Vol. 20, No. 2, March 2011, 264–283 Social capital and citizens’ behaviour during environmental policy implementation The literature review has highlighted significant links between the four components of social capital and environmental behaviour. The level of compliance and cooperation of citizens during environmental policy applications may depend on several factors (Etzioni 1961, Bullock and Rogers 1976, Parsons 2001) including social capital parameters (Jones et al. 2009). However, the influence of social capital components may vary depending on the type of policy instrument implemented. A significant distinction is between obligatory and voluntary policies. The former promote certain regulations and force citizens to comply with them whereas the latter depend on voluntary participation and promote collaboration of individuals during policy implementation (Bruckmeier and Teherani-Kronner 1992, Rittberger and Richardson 2003, Olsson et al. 2004, Koontz and Thomas 2006, Morton 2008). The other instruments exist, such as marketbased instruments, providing economic incentives in order to promote citizens’ cooperation (Driesen 2006) and communicative instruments (Eckerberg 1997) aiming to diffuse information and increase environmental awareness. In reality, environmental policies refer to a combination of these instruments in order to increase their efficiency. Bullock, C.S. III. and Rodgers, H.R. Jr., 1976. Civil rights policies and the matter of compliance. In: J.E. Anderson et al., eds. Cases in public policy making. New York: Praeger, 237–257. Driesen, D., 2006. Economic instruments for sustainable development. In: B.J. Richardsonand and S. Wood, eds. Environmental law for sustainability. Portland, OR: Hart, 277–308. Eckerberg, K., 1997. Comparing the local use of environmental policy instruments in Nordic and Baltic countries – the issue of diffuse water pollution. Environmental Politics, 6, 24–47. Etzioni, A., 1961. A comparative analysis of complex organizations. New York: Free Press. Jones, N., et al., 2009. Social capital and environmental policy instruments. EnvironmentalPolitics, 18 (4), 595–611. Koontz, T.M. and Thomas, C.W., 2006. What do we know and need to know about the environmental outcomes of collaborative management. Public Administration Review, 66, 111–121. Morton, L.W., 2008. The role of civic structure in achieving performance-based watershed management. Society and Natural Resources, 21, 751–766. Parsons, W., 2001. Public policy: an introduction to the theory and practice of policy analysis. 4th edn. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar. Diunduhdari: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/fenp20 ……….15/12/2012

27. SOCIAL CAPITAL AND HOUSEHOLD SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT POLICIES: A CASE STUDY IN MYTILENE, GREECE Nikoleta Jones*, Constantinos P. Halvadakis and Costas M. Sophoulis Department of Environment, University of the Aegean, Mytilene, Lesvos, Greece Environmental Politics. Vol. 20, No. 2, March 2011, 264–283 The four components of social capital are expected to influence significantly citizens’ cooperation and compliance with an environmental policy. The most indicative connection derives from the influence of structural elements. Social networks are important during the implementation of public policies in order to diffuse information and minimise non-compliance due to lack of knowledge (Anderson 2006). However, social networks are expected to be of high significance in the case of ‘softer’ policy instruments (voluntary and informative) which do not oblige citizens to change their behaviour. In order for citizens to cooperate voluntarily and present a shift in their behaviour, there is a greater need for benefits resulting from social networks. These mainly refer to an increase in participation, the diffusion of knowledge of the positive outcomes of the policy and information on means of participation. Involvement in participatory management projects may also have a positive influence on other aspects of social capital such as trust (Mandarano 2008). Furthermore, the tendency of individuals to comply with formal social norms may have a significant influence in the case of regulatory instruments (Jones et al. 2009). Anderson, J.E. 2006. Public policymaking: an introduction. 6th ed. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company. Jones, N., et al., 2009. Social capital and environmental policy instruments. EnvironmentalPolitics, 18 (4), 595–611. Mandarano, L.A., 2008. Evaluating collaborative environmental planning outputs and outcomes: restoring and protecting habitat in the New York–New Jersey Harbor Estuary Program. Journal of Planning Education and Research, 27, 456–468. Diunduhdari: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/fenp20 ……….15/12/2012

28. SOCIAL CAPITAL AND HOUSEHOLD SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT POLICIES: A CASE STUDY IN MYTILENE, GREECE Nikoleta Jones*, Constantinos P. Halvadakis and Costas M. Sophoulis Department of Environment, University of the Aegean, Mytilene, Lesvos, Greece Environmental Politics. Vol. 20, No. 2, March 2011, 264–283 Model A structural equation model (SEM) was used to validate the proposed conceptual structure. In particular, the observed variables measuring social capital were connected with the four latent factors of social capital (social and institutional trust, compliance with social norms and social networks). The latent variables were then connected with different types of environmental behaviours each constituting a different model . Structural model for waste regulation. Diunduhdari: www.crcreresearch.org/survey.htm……….15/12/2012

29. SOCIAL CAPITAL AND HOUSEHOLD SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT POLICIES: A CASE STUDY IN MYTILENE, GREECE Nikoleta Jones*, Constantinos P. Halvadakis and Costas M. Sophoulis Department of Environment, University of the Aegean, Mytilene, Lesvos, Greece Environmental Politics. Vol. 20, No. 2, March 2011, 264–283 SOCIAL CAPITAL VARIABLES The selection of the observed social capital variables was based on relevant studies measuring social capital (e.g. Narayan and Cassidy 2001, Grootaertand Bastelaer 2002, van der Gaag and Snijders 2005, van Oorschot et al. 2006). Regarding social trust, both generalised and particularised trusts were measured. The former was explored through the commonly used question of social trust: ‘Would you say that most people can be trusted or you can’t be too careful?’ along with the respective question on fairness, ‘Most people are fair or try to take advantage of you’ (Narayan and Cassidy 2001, Woodhouse 2006). Both questions were measured on a 10-point Likert scale where 0 represented ‘can’t be too careful’ and 10 referred to ‘most people can be trusted’. Regarding particularised trust, it was explored in relation to neighbours on a same 10-point Likert scale. This parameter was included in the model because in Mytileneneighbours share the same waste bins and thus it is expected to influence individual behaviour. Grootaert, C. and van Bastelaer, T., 2002. Understanding and measuring social capital: a multidisciplinary tool for practitioners. Washington, DC: World Bank.Narayan, D. and Cassidy, M.F., 2001. A dimensional approach to measuring social capital: development and validation of a social capital inventory. Current Sociology, 49, 59–102. van derGaag, M. and Snijders, T.A.B., 2005. The resource generator: social capital quantification with concrete items. Social Networks, 27, 1–29. van Oorschot, W., Arts, W., and Gelissen, J., 2006. Social capital in Europe. Measurement and social and regional distribution of a multifaceted phenomenon. ActaSociologica, 49, 149–176. Woodhouse, A., 2006. Social capital and economic development in regional Australia: a case study. Journal of Rural Studies, 22, 83–94. Diunduhdari: www.crcreresearch.org/survey.htm……….15/12/2012

30. SOCIAL CAPITAL AND HOUSEHOLD SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT POLICIES: A CASE STUDY IN MYTILENE, GREECE Nikoleta Jones*, Constantinos P. Halvadakis and Costas M. Sophoulis Department of Environment, University of the Aegean, Mytilene, Lesvos, Greece Environmental Politics. Vol. 20, No. 2, March 2011, 264–283 SOCIAL CAPITAL VARIABLES Institutional trust was also explored on a 10-point Likert scale (0 – ‘Don’t trust at all’ 10 – ‘I trust completely’) (Paxton 1999, Newton and Norris 2000, Van Oorschot et al. 2006) for three institutions. Trust towards the Ministry of Environment and the Municipality of Mytilene was explored due to their responsibility for the management of household solid waste management and recycling. Furthermore, trust towards local NGOs was included in the structural model for recycling behaviour due to the responsibility of the institution for the recycling programme in Mytilene. A third component explored participation of individuals in formal social networks either as members or volunteers in organisations. Similar to previous measurements (Newton and Norris 2000, Beugelsdijk and van Schaik 2005, van Oorschot et al. 2006) individuals were asked whether they are a member or a volunteer in an organisation, measured in dichotomous format. The aim of the question was to investigate active and passive participation of individuals and their tendency to participate in community issues. A list of organisations functioning on the island was presented in order to facilitate individuals. These included a variety of environmental, health, sport and other organisations. Beugelsdijk, S. and Schaik, T.V., 2005. Differences in social capital between 54 Western European Regions. Regional Studies, 39, 1053–1064. Newton, K. and Norris, P., 2000. Confidence in public institutions: faith, culture, or performance? In: S.J. Pharr and R. Putnam, eds. Disaffected democracies: what’s troubling the trilateral countries. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 52–73. Paxton, P., 1999. Is social capital declining in the United States? A multiple indicator assessment. American Journal of Sociology, 105, 88–127. van Oorschot, W., Arts, W., and Gelissen, J., 2006. Social capital in Europe. Measurement and social and regional distribution of a multifaceted phenomenon. ActaSociologica, 49, 149–176. Diunduhdari: www.crcreresearch.org/survey.htm……….15/12/2012

31. SOCIAL CAPITAL AND HOUSEHOLD SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT POLICIES: A CASE STUDY IN MYTILENE, GREECE Nikoleta Jones*, Constantinos P. Halvadakis and Costas M. Sophoulis Department of Environment, University of the Aegean, Mytilene, Lesvos, Greece Environmental Politics. Vol. 20, No. 2, March 2011, 264–283 The questionnaire included several questions aiming to investigate the tendency of complying with certain norms of behaviour. In the social capital literature, this parameter is explored through questions investigating how wrong individuals regard certain actions (van Oorschot et al. 2006,Jones et al. 2008). A general question of antisocial behaviour was included regarding the avoidance of paying taxes. Furthermore, illegal disposal of construction waste along with illegal construction were also included. All questions were measured on a 5-point Likert scale (1 – ‘totally justifiable’, 5 – ‘totally unjustifiable’). Jones, N., et al., 2008. Social capital in Greece: measurement and comparative perspective. South European Society and Politics, 13, 175–193. van Oorschot, W., Arts, W., and Gelissen, J., 2006. Social capital in Europe. Measurement and social and regional distribution of a multifaceted phenomenon. ActaSociologica, 49, 149–176. Diunduhdari: www.crcreresearch.org/survey.htm……….15/12/2012

32. SOCIAL CAPITAL AND HOUSEHOLD SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT POLICIES: A CASE STUDY IN MYTILENE, GREECE Nikoleta Jones*, Constantinos P. Halvadakis and Costas M. Sophoulis Department of Environment, University of the Aegean, Mytilene, Lesvos, Greece Environmental Politics. Vol. 20, No. 2, March 2011, 264–283 Environmental behaviour variables Regarding variables investigating environmental behaviour for the management of household solid waste, respondents were asked to declare the frequency of proceeding to four environmental actions. Three behaviours were connected with the waste regulation: disposal of waste in closed plastic bags, waste disposal close to the hours of waste collection and reduction of waste volume. The recycling of aluminium cans was also examined. All behaviours were measured on a 4-point scale (1 – ‘Never’, 2 – ‘Sometimes’, 3 – ‘Most times’ and 4 – ‘Always’). For the investigation of each type of behaviour, different structural models were created. In Figure 1, the structural model for behaviours connected with the waste management is presented (excluding trust in NGOs). Finally, demographic data (gender, age, income, education and employment) were collected in the final part of the questionnaire. Diunduhdari: www.crcreresearch.org/survey.htm……….15/12/2012

33. Nick Llewellyn, Colin Armistead, (2000) "Business process management: Exploring social capital within processes", International Journal of Service Industry Management, Vol. 11 Iss: 3, pp.225 - 243 . This paper explores evidence of “social capital” within the service delivery process of a large telecommunications company. It considers the extent to which a specific business process exhibited structural, relational and cognitive features of social capital, which enabled social credits to be traded and status to be conferred across operational boundaries. Through a textual analysis of interview data, the research generates an understanding of how certain groups within business processes – often utilising informal structures – created, maintained and exchanged social credits. This framework of analysis is then applied to address the function of social capital within the process. Evidence is presented to suggests that credits shared across functional boundaries informed upon employees ability to deal with emergencies, recover services and to cope when things went wrong. The paper concludes by making a range of propositions that may enable managers to identify, build and maintain social capital within processes. Diunduhdari: http://www.emeraldinsight.com/journals.htm?articleid=851693&show=html ……….4/1/2013

34. Nick Llewellyn, Colin Armistead, (2000) "Business process management: Exploring social capital within processes", International Journal of Service Industry Management, Vol. 11 Iss: 3, pp.225 - 243 Diunduhdari: http://www.emeraldinsight.com/journals.htm?articleid=851693&show=html ……….4/1/2013

35. Schaefer-McDaniel, Nicole J. (2004). “Conceptualizing Social Capital among Young People: Toward a New Theory.” Children, Youth and Environments 14(1): 140-150. The concept of social capital has gained more recognition in the past few decades but has created conceptual confusion due to varying uses of the term by different writers. Definitional and methodological flaws plague the few studies that have explored social capital among young people. This paper offers a critical synthesis of the construct and also introduces a new theoretical framework of social capital among young people to encourage future research. The author understands social capital among young people to consist of three components, two of which have previously been discussed in the adult social capital literature: 1) Social networks/interactions and sociability; 2) trust and reciprocity; and 3) sense of belonging/place attachment. Lastly, beneficial outcomes of exploring and investing social capital in this population are discussed. Diunduhdari: http://www.colorado.edu/journals/cye/14_1/articles/article6full.htm ……….4/1/2013

36. Schaefer-McDaniel, Nicole J. (2004). “Conceptualizing Social Capital among Young People: Toward a New Theory.” Children, Youth and Environments 14(1): 140-150. Pierre Bourdieu: Social Capital and Cultural Capital Social capital, according to Bourdieu (1984), consists of two dimensions: 1) social networks and connections/relationships and 2) sociability. Bourdieu specifically explains that people must not only have relationships with others, they must further understand how these networks operate and how one can maintain and utilize these relationships over time. Particularly, Bourdieu emphasizes that social networks must be constructed and then skillfully maintained in order for the actor to utilize their resources. Bourdieu (1977) further described the concept of “cultural capital.” He used the term to refer to information or knowledge about specific cultural beliefs, traditions, and standards of behavior that promote success and accomplishment in life. Cultural capital is passed through the family from parents to children by spending economic resources on culturally valued and specific items such as books, tickets to the theater or museums, and other culturally-specific artifacts. This concept specifically incorporates an understanding and familiarity of a dominant culture and language in society. Bourdieu, Pierre (1977). “Cultural Reproduction and Social Reproduction.” In Halsey, A.H. and Jerome Karabel, eds. Power and Ideology in Education. New York: Oxford University Press. Bourdieu, Pierre (1984). Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgment of Taste. London: Routledge. Diunduhdari: http://www.colorado.edu/journals/cye/14_1/articles/article6full.htm ……….4/1/2013

37. Schaefer-McDaniel, Nicole J. (2004). “Conceptualizing Social Capital among Young People: Toward a New Theory.” Children, Youth and Environments 14(1): 140-150. James Coleman: Social Capital in Families and Schools The family system is the basis for American sociologist James Coleman’s definition of social capital. He observed that family systems are made up of a) financial capital (financial resources for household and child rearing expenses); b) human capital (parental education and economic skills); and c) social capital (Coleman 1988, 1990a). While the first two concepts refer to parental financial and cognitive abilities, the latter term strictly refers to the more social and interpersonal aspects of family life. Coleman (1988) recognized two distinct components of social capital: social capital 1) as a relational construct and 2) as providing resources to others through relationships with individuals. Social capital is specifically defined by its function (Coleman 1990a) and refers to “an asset that a person or persons can use as a resource. Social capital is any kind of social relationship that is a resource to the person” (Coleman 1990b, 35). Coleman, James S. (1985). “Schools and the Communities They Serve.” Phi Delta Kappa 66:527-532. Coleman, James S. (1987). “Social Capital and the Development of Youth.” Momentum 18 (4): 6-8. Coleman, James S. (1988). “Social Capital in the Creation of Human Capital.” American Journal of Sociology 94: S95-S120. Coleman, James S. (1990a). Foundations of Social Theory. Cambridge, MA: Bellknap Press. Coleman, James S. (1990b). “How Worksite Schools and other Schools Reforms can Generate Social Capital: An Interview with James Coleman.” American Federation of Teachers: 35-45. Diunduhdari: http://www.colorado.edu/journals/cye/14_1/articles/article6full.htm ……….4/1/2013

38. Schaefer-McDaniel, Nicole J. (2004). “Conceptualizing Social Capital among Young People: Toward a New Theory.” Children, Youth and Environments 14(1): 140-150. Robert Putnam: Social Capital in Communities Robert Putnam extends the definition to apply to societies and communities in general. His interpretation of social capital has therefore often been referred to as a “collective asset” and a “common good” (Warren, Thompson, and Saegert 2001, 1) of neighborhoods and communities. Putnam (2000) differentiates between physical capital (physical objects), human capital (individual properties), and social capital. In his theory and like the two theories previously discussed, social capital refers to social networks and interpersonal relationships. According to Putnam, the notions of trust and reciprocity arise from our social network relationships and thus generate “civic virtue” (Putnam 2000) or a trusting community where residents not only know each other but are actively involved in each other’s lives and maintain trustful and helpful relations (e.g., looking after a neighbor’s children). Putnam notes that close or collective communities have greater social capital. The understanding of social capital primarily as a private good (increased social capital facilitates beneficial outcomes for the individual, such as academic success), Putnam’s theory solely understands social capital as a public good (high social capital facilitates beneficial outcomes for the community, such as reduced crime or increased political participation). Putnam, Robert D. (1993). Making Democracy Work: Civic Traditions in Modern Italy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Putnam, Robert D. (2000). Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community. New York: Simon and Schuster. Diunduhdari: http://www.colorado.edu/journals/cye/14_1/articles/article6full.htm ……….4/1/2013

39. Schaefer-McDaniel, Nicole J. (2004). “Conceptualizing Social Capital among Young People: Toward a New Theory.” Children, Youth and Environments 14(1): 140-150. The dimensions of a social capital framework for young people Diunduhdari: http://www.colorado.edu/journals/cye/14_1/articles/article6full.htm ……….4/1/2013

40. Schaefer-McDaniel, Nicole J. (2004). “Conceptualizing Social Capital among Young People: Toward a New Theory.” Children, Youth and Environments 14(1): 140-150. Social Networks and Sociability The first component, social networks and sociability, are original dimensions of Bourdieu’s social capital theory. Bordieu’s definition of sociability- the ability to sustain and utilize one’s social network- is similar to de Souza Briggs’ (1998) notion of “social leverage” (possessing the skill to get ahead) as a feature of social capital. Morrow (2001) similarly urged that “actors need to recognize their networks as a resource in order for these networks to constitute social capital” (56). Sociability is no less a central concept in children’s social capital as well. The emphasis on social relationships and subsequently social network analysis has been gaining increasing attention since the late 1970s. Wellman’s classic 1979 article highlights how intimate relationships to others in our community can help us in everyday matters. Network analysis has been referred to as a “powerful model of [the] social structure” (Scott 1988) and has further contributed to other social science areas including political sociology, social support, social influence, and epidemiology (Galaskiewicz and Wasserman 1993). A review of the history of network analysis suggests that communities are in fact networks and that “social capital is a network phenomenon” . Galaskiewicz, J. and S. Wasserman (1993). “Social Network Analysis: Concepts, Methodology, and Directions for the 1990s.” Sociological Methods and Research 22(1): 3-22. Morrow, V. (2001). “Young People’s Explanation and Experiences of Social Exclusion: Retrieving Bourdieu’s Concept of Social Capital.” International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy 21(4/5/6): 37-63. Scott, J. (1988). “Social Network Analysis.” Sociology 22(1): 109-127. Diunduhdari: http://www.colorado.edu/journals/cye/14_1/articles/article6full.htm ……….4/1/2013

41. Schaefer-McDaniel, Nicole J. (2004). “Conceptualizing Social Capital among Young People: Toward a New Theory.” Children, Youth and Environments 14(1): 140-150. Trust and Reciprocity Drawing on Coleman’s and Putnam’s understanding of social capital, mutual levels of trust and reciprocity will also be incorporated into this theory of social capital among young people. In order to benefit from relationships to others and to use them as resources, one needs to be able to trust that network members are providing us with correct and helpful information and genuine support. In particular, children need to establish trustful relations with family members, people in their neighborhoods, peers, and teachers or other role models. This dimension also refers to authentic fairness, overall trustworthiness, and acts of helpfulness such as engaging in helping behavior without gaining direct benefit (e.g., helping a person cross the street). Diunduhdari: http://www.colorado.edu/journals/cye/14_1/articles/article6full.htm ……….4/1/2013

42. Schaefer-McDaniel, Nicole J. (2004). “Conceptualizing Social Capital among Young People: Toward a New Theory.” Children, Youth and Environments 14(1): 140-150. Sense of Belonging / Place Attachment Despite the significance of place attachment or sense of belonging in the environmental psychology literature (Chawla 1992), this concept has gained very little recognition in the social capital literature. Putnam mentions sense of belonging to a community in his definition (Putnam 1993) but neglects to explain or integrate this concept into his overall theory. Sense of belonging, as defined here, is closely related to the concept of “psychological sense of community” that is oftentimes mentioned in the community psychology literature (Sarason 1974). While sense of belonging refers to an individual feeling of belonging after attaching symbolic meaning to a certain environment, psychological sense of community refers to the degree to which individuals feel that they are part of a collective community. More specifically, two components overlap with sense of belonging: membership (sense of feeling a part of a group or environment; sense of feeling like one belongs in their environment) and influence (the individual matters to the group; cohesiveness; the group is complete only with the individual) (MacMillan and Chavis 1986). Sense of belonging also incorporates a more symbolic attachment or investment to the place, particularly a feeling of “rootedness or centeredness” (Proshansky, Fabian, and Kaminoff 1983). Chawla, Louise (1992). “Childhood Place Attachment.” In Altman, I. and S.M. Low, eds. Place Attachments. New York: Plenum Press. MacMillan, D.W. and D.M. Chavis(1986). “Sense of Community: A Definition and Theory.” Journal of Community Psychology 14: 6-23. Proshansky, H.M., A.K. Fabian and R. Kaminoff(1983). “Place Identity: Physical World Socialization of the Self.” Journal of Environmental Psychology 3: 57-83. Putnam, Robert D. (1993). Making Democracy Work: Civic Traditions in Modern Italy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Saranson, S. (1974). The Psychological Sense of Community: Prospects for a Community Psychology. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Diunduhdari: http://www.colorado.edu/journals/cye/14_1/articles/article6full.htm ……….4/1/2013

43. Schaefer-McDaniel, Nicole J. (2004). “Conceptualizing Social Capital among Young People: Toward a New Theory.” Children, Youth and Environments 14(1): 140-150. Social Capital and the Environment This theory of social capital should now be grounded in the physical environment. James Gibson (1979) discusses in his theory of environmental affordances that certain parts of the environments allow or afford certain types of behaviors. Along with this understanding, it is also necessary to explore young people’s use of physical space in their everyday environments and identify areas that enhance or foster social interactions as well as recognize areas that restrict or prohibit such activity. Spaces that enhance social interactions and a sense of belonging (such as parks, meetings places, spaces for socializing, etc.) thus can contribute to building social capital. This line of research should determine the places where social capital is being created and explore how the physical form of the places contributes to its growth. Urban planners should then collaborate with young people in designing these types of spaces in their communities. Social and public policies and interventions can also address the creation or modification of these spaces to serve the particular needs of their users. These types of designs, policies, and interventions would then contribute to building social capital among young people. Gibson, J.J. (1979). Ecological Approaches to Visual Perception. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Diunduhdari: http://www.colorado.edu/journals/cye/14_1/articles/article6full.htm ……….4/1/2013

44. Gilda's Club and Social Capital Development:  Furthering Health and Well-being Social Capital and Health Social capital is a by-product of our social relationships that makes possible the achievement of certain aims that cannot be accomplished by individuals in its absence . It is premised upon the notion that an “investment” in a relationship will ultimately result in some sort of “return”. In other words, social capital has (1) a relational element residing in the social organizations of which the individual is a member, and (2) a material element that relates to the resources to which that individual has claim by virtue of his or her membership within the group. Accordingly, social capital enables individuals to use the relationships they develop to “get by” (e.g., gain emotional support and caregiving) or to “get ahead” (e.g., information sharing) (Lin, 2001), both of which have implications for health and well being. The contribution of social capital to health has been demonstrated in a variety of fields, particularly within epidemiology. Wilkinson (1996) first introduced social capital to the public health field, arguing in 2000 that “an important part of the social gradient in human health is attributable to the direct effects of social status, rather than to other influences on health like poorer housing, diet and air pollution”. Lin, N. (2001). Social capital: A theory of social structure and action . New York : Cambridge University Press. Wilkinson, R. (1996). Unhealthy societies: The afflictions of inequality . London : Routledge. Diunduhdari: http://healthycommunities.uwaterloo.ca/gc/background.htm ……….4/1/2013

45. Gilda's Club and Social Capital Development:  Furthering Health and Well-being Macinko and Starfield (2001) determined social capital has been applied in four ways in the epidemiology literature: “(1) as an explanatory ‘pathway' in the relationship between income equality and health status; (2) as a factor in the study of social networks and health; (3) as a mediator of the performance of health policies or reforms; and (4) as synonymous with social deprivation or social cohesion in relationship with violence and crime”). Szreter and Woolcock (2004) noted social capital has links to health in three main ways: social support, inequality, and political economy. Our intent here by noting the various ways social capital has been studied is simply to demonstrate the breadth of the social capital scholarship within the epidemiological literature. More importantly, we emphasize that the volume and diversity of the empirical evidence demonstrating the significance of social capital as a determinant of at least some important health outcomes is quite impressive. Indeed, health researchers have long known that, at an individual level, networks, social participation, and supportive social relationships are good for individual health. People with strong social ties, for instance, have mortality half or a third of that of people with weak social ties (Berkman, 1995), and low social support predicts coronary heart disease (Bosma et al., 1997). Berkman, L. E. (1995). The role of social relations in health promotion. Psychosom Med , 57 , 245-254. Bosma, H., Marmot, M., Hemingway, H., Nicholson, A., Brunner, E., & Stansfield, S. (1997). Low job control and risk of CHD in the Whitehall II study. British Medical Journal , 314 , 558-565. Macinko, J., & Starfield, B. (2001). The utility of social capital in research on health determinants. The Milbank Quarterly , 79 (3), 387-427. Szreter, S., & Woolcock, M. (2004). Health by association? Social capital, social theory, and the political economy of public health. International Journal of Epidemiology , 33 , 650-667. Diunduhdari: http://healthycommunities.uwaterloo.ca/gc/background.htm ……….4/1/2013

46. Gilda's Club and Social Capital Development:  Furthering Health and Well-being Third Places Here, we use the term place deliberately, in contrast to space , which is “a realm without meaning” (Cresswell, 2004). Place is defined by more than biophysical elements; it refers to the socio-cultural meanings and emotional attachments held by an individual or group for a spatial setting. Accordingly, this conceptualization recognizes that places are social constructions insofar as their meanings are “created and reproduced through interpersonal interaction, formalized in social behaviour, and ultimately persist in collective memory” (Stokowski, 2002). Put another way, the accumulation of experiences within a place personalizes it and gives it meaning (Stedman, 2003). By attributing meaning to a space, individuals become attached to the meanings themselves (Stedman, 2003). Consequently, “the connections people have with a place extend far beyond use; they are layered with very passionate and deep-seated personal elements” (Cheng, Kruger & Daniels, 2003). Ultimately, Stokowski (2002) argued, “each effort to create a place becomes an elaboration of the beliefs and values of some collection of people, expressed and fostered in their promotion of a preferred reality” . The construction of place, therefore, involves a process of relationship building that ultimately reflects a collective identity that we believe can be used as a resource to aid in the maintenance and enhancement of individual health. This proposal aims to investigate this possibility. Cheng, A. S., Kruger, L. E., & Daniels, S. E. (2003). “Place” as an integrating concept in natural resource politics: propositions for a social science agenda. Society and Natural Resources , 16 , 87-104. Cresswell, T. (2004). Place: A short introduction. Malden , MA : Blackwell Publishing. Stedman, R. C. (2003). Sense of place and forest science: Toward a program of quantitative research. Forest Science , 49 (6), 822-829. Stokowski, P. A. (2002). Languages of place and discourse of power: Constructing new senses of place. Journal of Leisure Research , 34 (4), 368-382. Diunduhdari: http://healthycommunities.uwaterloo.ca/gc/background.htm ……….4/1/2013

47. Gilda's Club and Social Capital Development:  Furthering Health and Well-being Third Places In particular, we are interested in third places , informal gathering places apart from home (the first place) and work (the second place). Oldenburg, the originator of this concept, defined third places as “havens of sociability where conversation is the main activity and conviviality prevails” (2003). In his writings about third place, Oldenburg has argued third places give extended meaning to the concept of the support group. That is, they provide “not only emotional support but practical assistance as well. As acquaintances evolve into friends, the desire to help others grows. Needed items are loaned or given, as is skill, advice, and expertise. Time, effort, and money are saved when needs and problems are mentioned in the company of friends” ( Oldenburg , 2003). This description is consistent with social capital theory, yet Oldenburg and other scholars have failed to identify the explicit connection. It does, however, fit well with a theoretical framework we have developed to explain the process of social capital development for health and well-being (Glover & Parry, 2005). Glover, T. D., & Parry, D. C. (2005). Context, by-product, and action: The linkages among leisure, social capital, and health. In D. L. Kerstetter & W. Hendricks (eds.), Abstracts from the 2005 Leisure Research Symposium [CD ROM] . San Antonio , TX : National Park and Recreation Association. Oldenburg, R. (2003). Third places. In K. Christensen, & D. Levinson (eds.), Encyclopedia of community (pp. 1373-1376). Thousand Oaks , CA : Sage. Diunduhdari: http://healthycommunities.uwaterloo.ca/gc/background.htm ……….4/1/2013

48. Gilda's Club and Social Capital Development:  Furthering Health and Well-being A Model of Social Capital Development Our model (see figure 1) begins with sociability at its core. Indeed, if social capital is about anything, it is about what Portes (1998) called “the positive consequences of sociability” . Settings, like third places (e.g., Gilda's club), that encourage social contact draw relative strangers together routinely and frequently, thus building a durable social network for those involved. Moreover, these social contexts serve an important function in terms of facilitating the ongoing maintenance and sustainability of social relationships. Nahapiet and Ghoshal (1998) noted, “social relationships generally, though not always, are strengthened through interaction but die out if not maintained” . This observation ultimately speaks to an accepted notion upon which social capital is premised: The maintenance and reproduction of social capital are made possible only through the social interactions of members and the continued investment in social relationships (Portes, 1998). Repeated social contact reaffirms the sociable bonds among individuals. To this end, ongoing sociability is paramount to the sustainability of relationships that provide some return to the individual. Nahapiet, J., & Ghosal, S. (1998). Social capital, intellectual capital, and the organization advantage. Academy of Management Review , 23 (2), 242-266. Portes, A. (1998). Social capital: Its origins and applications in modern sociology. Annual Review of Sociology , 24 , 1-24. Diunduhdari: http://healthycommunities.uwaterloo.ca/gc/background.htm ……….4/1/2013

49. Gilda's Club and Social Capital Development:  Furthering Health and Well-being The relationships developed in social contexts can lead to certain spin off effects or byproducts of those relationships. These by-products, conceptualized here as social capital (e.g., norms of reciprocity, obligation, group sanctions), are crucial to an individual's health, for they can facilitate three forms of action: (1) expressive, (2) instrumental, and (3) obstructive. The first, expressive action , fits within the social support school of thought insofar as it facilitates emotional support, thereby helping individuals maintain their emotional well-being. Here, group solidarity is cemented by a common experience of adversity (e.g., dealing with cancer). The second form of action, instrumental , is tied to the material dimension of social capital, which gives members of a social network access to resources. Acquiring valuable information from friends and acquaintances is one of the most common, yet important by-products of relationships. Cancer patients, for instance, may share their treatment experiences, notes about doctors, and various tips or advice they received regarding their conditions. By providing access to this information, these individuals help to advance their own health and that of their friends who are also dealing with cancer. While getting ahead does not necessarily mean “curing” their cancer, the information they gain and put to use places them further along in coping with their experiences and aids in their decision making processes. In short, instrumental action allows individuals to “get ahead” by gaining access to resources to which they would otherwise have no access. Diunduhdari: http://healthycommunities.uwaterloo.ca/gc/background.htm ……….4/1/2013

50. Gilda's Club and Social Capital Development:  Furthering Health and Well-being Finally, the third form of action, obstructive , recognizes the harm relationships can have on individual health. Correspondingly, its inclusion in the model provides a more balanced perspective related to social capital and health insofar as it acknowledges the ill-effects relationships can create for individuals. In direct contrast to instrumental action, obstructive action can represent a set back or keep an individual from getting ahead. In our findings from our study of women dealing with infertility, we offered many examples related to this outcome. Notably, research participants who remained infertile felt compelled to support friends who conceived or adopted children, even though such support made them feel uncomfortable and upset about their own situations. The activities that generated stress in the participants were, more often than not, child centered activities such as birthday parties, baby showers, toy-shopping, Easter egg hunts, and Halloween parties. All of these events served to remind the research participants of their own childlessness, thereby creating further stress in their lives. Nevertheless, the social norms and sanctions embedded in their friendships (e.g., social capital) compelled them to continue to support their friends under stressful circumstances. We aim to further explore the potential outcomes (e.g., expressive, instrumental, and obstructive action) of social capital developed in the context of Gilda's Club, with particular emphasis on the role of place as a container for the sociability that impacts upon health and well-being. Diunduhdari: http://healthycommunities.uwaterloo.ca/gc/background.htm ……….4/1/2013