Chapter 1 Worlds Apart

1. Chapter 1 Worlds Apart

2. Key Questions • What was the status of Native American, West African, and European societies on the eve of contact? • What were the reasons behind Europe’s impulse for global exploration? • What were the Spanish, French, and English experience in America in the 16th century? • What were the consequences of contact between the Old and New Worlds?

3. ORIGINS • I. Coming to Americas • II. Paleo Indian Mammoth Hunters • III. Archaic Hunters and Gatherers • IV. More Complex Native American Cultures

4. I. Coming to Americas • Developed Elsewhere then moved here 1. Inland 2. Coastal B. Two developments & Beringia • Three Waves: 1. Amerind 2. Athapaskan 3. Inuit D. Takes thousands of years E. Polynesia

5. II. Paleo Indian Mammoth Hunters (40,000 BCE – 8,000 BCE) A. Diffused throughout 2 continents B. Clovis Point (9500-9000 BCE) C. 9000 BCE Big Game extinction

6. III. Archaic Hunters & Gatherers (8,000 – 1,000 BCE) A. Archaic B. Archaic Regions varied • Great Plains bison hunters • Great Basin • Pacific Coast • Arctic • Eastern Woodlands • Poverty Point

7. IV. More Complex North American Cultures – Development of Farming A. Southwestern Cultures • Mogollon (300 BCE – 1000 CE) • Hohokam (100 BCE – 1400 CE) • Anasazi (100-1300 CE)

8. IV. More Complex North American Cultures – Development of Farming B. Mound Builders • Chiefdoms • Adena (400 – 100 BCE) • Hopewell (100 BCE – 500 CE) • Mississippi (700- 1700 CE) = Cahokia

9. Native American Societiesbefore 1492 • Paleo-Indians and the Archaic period • An estimated 70 million people lived on the continents of North and South America in 1492. • Paleo-Indians were the earliest Americans and came to the Americas in small bands tracking game. • Climate changes around 12,000 years ago depleted the game and changed the vegetation. • During the Archaic period (8,000 B.C.E.–1500 B.C.E.). Native Americans adapted to regional environments and developed larger communities.

10. Native American Societiesbefore 1492 (cont’d.) • The Development of Agriculture • Agriculture in the Americas began with the cultivation of maize (corn) in central Mexico around 3000 B.C.E. • Agriculture provided a more secure food supply stimulating population growth, permanent villages, and the rise of large cities in central Mexico. • Agriculture led to greater diversity among Native American peoples, greater specialization within societies, the improvement of the status of women who were the primary farmers, expanded trade networks, and influenced religious beliefs.

11. MAP 1–1 North American Culture Areas, c. 1500 Over the course of centuries, Indian peoples in North America developed distinctive cultures suited to the environments in which they lived. Inhabitants of each culture area shared basic patterns of subsistence, craft work, and social organization. Most, but not all, Indian peoples combined farming with hunting and gathering.

12. Native American Societiesbefore 1492 (cont’d.) • Nonfarming Societies • Not all Native American peoples adopted agriculture. • The environment often led Native American peoples to resist agriculture and rely on hunting, gathering, and fishing.

13. Native American Societiesbefore 1492 (cont’d.) • Mesoamerican Civilizations • Around 1200 B.C.E., a series of complex, literate, and urban cultures emerged in Mesoamerica. • The Mayans flourished between about A.D.150 and 900 in southern Yucatan, creating advanced writing, mathematics, and calendrical systems. • Teotihuacán was a large city that dominated central Mexico between the first and eighth century A.D. • The Aztecs were a warrior people that created a vast empire in Mesoamerica based on their capital Tenochtitlán. • Map: North American culture areas c. 1500, p. 6

14. Native American Societiesbefore 1492 (cont’d.) • North American Cultures • Introduction of maize around 400 B.C. led to spread of agriculture and the rise of farming cultures. • The Anasazi settled in the Southwest, adopting agriculture, developing villages with large communal dwellings. • The Plains Indians adopted a nomadic lifestyle that combined farming and hunting. • The Adena-Hopewell and Mississippian mound-building arose in the eastern Woodlands based on large earthworks and agriculture that supported large urban populations.

15. Native American Societiesbefore 1492, (cont’d.) • The Caribbean Islanders • Around 5000 B.C., Native Americans began moving from the mainland to the Caribbean islands. • By 1492, approximately four million people lived on the Caribbean islands. • Island societies were hierarchical and often ruled by powerful chiefs.

16. West African Societies • Geographic and political differences • Politically, West African societies spanned a broad spectrum from wealthy, powerful kingdoms and empires to decentralized villages. • West Africans were skilled artisans especially regarding metalworking. • Complex trade networks existed in West Africa and commercial links extended to Europe and the Middle East. • Most West African were farmers and strict gender roles defined agricultural tasks. Men prepared the fields for planting, hunted and herded cattle. Women cultivated and harvested the crops, and engaged in trade.

17. West African Societies • Family structure and religion • Families were often organized into clans, primarily patrilineal, that stressed extended family links. • Traditional West African religions stressed rituals and ceremonies to honor ancestors and gain the goodwill of spiritual forces. • Islam was also a major religion in parts of West Africa.

18. West African Societies • European merchants in West Africa and the slave trade • By the 1430s, the Portuguese were engaged in the slave trade. • African slavery was not necessarily a permanent condition. • The Portuguese initiated direct trade with West Africa in the early 1400s, exchanging horses, clothing, wine, lead, iron, and steel for African gold, grain, animal skins, cotton, pepper, and camels

19. Western Europe on the Eveof Exploration • The consolidation of political and military authority • War and disease devastated Europe in the 14th century but stability had been achieved by the end of the 1400s. • The consolidation of military power and political authority strengthened the monarchies in France, England, and Spain. • In 1492, The Spanish completed the centuries-long reconquista that expelled the Muslims from Spain.

20. Western Europe on the Eveof Exploration • Religious conflict and the Protestant Reformation • By the 16th century, the Catholic Church had acquired great wealth and power. • Martin Luther’s criticism of the Church’s worldliness and corruption began the Reformation. • Protestant faiths emerged as reform movements that spread from Germany and Switzerland to France, the Netherlands, England, and Hungary. • The reformation fractured the religious unity of Europe and stimulated a century of warfare.

21. Contact • The lure of discovery • The potential rewards of overseas exploration captured the imagination of a select group of European merchants and monarchs. • Merchants sought access to the spice trade controlled at key points by Muslim rulers. • Advances in shipbuilding and navigation led to Portuguese exploration along the west coast of Africa and the establishment of trade. • Spain and Portugal acquired the various Atlantic islands and set up sugar plantations worked by native and later African slaves.

22. Contact • Christopher Columbus and the westward route to Asia • After convincing King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Spain to sponsor his voyage, Christopher Columbus landed in the Caribbean, believing he had reached Asia.

23. Contact • The Spanish conquest and colonization • Spain was well-suited to exploit Columbus’ discovery. The reconquista provided a religious justification of spreading Christianity and the nation possessed a strong military.Spain also had developed techniques for controlling newly conquered lands in the Canary Islands.

24. Contact • The end of the Aztec empire • Hernán Cortés and six hundred soldiers landed on the coast of Mexico in 1519 and by 1521 had conquered the mighty Aztec empire. • Several factors contributed to the swift Spanish success, including the Spanish technological superiority, especially guns and horses; the forging of alliances with subject peoples who resented Aztec rule; and disease that killed many of the Aztecs and demoralized the survivors. • An estimated 40 percent of the population of central Mexico died of smallpox in one year.

25. Contact • The fall of the Inca empire • In 1532, Francisco Pizzaro and 180 men discovered the Inca empire high in the Peruvian Andes. • Spaniards captured Cuzco, the Inca capital, and established a new capital at Lima. • By 1550, Spain’s New World empire stretched from the Caribbean through Mexico to Peru. • Colonial rulers subjected native inhabitants of New Spain to compulsory tribute payments and forced labor.

26. Contact • Spanish incursions to the north • The Spanish sponsored expeditions into Florida, and the present-day southeastern and southwestern United States but failed to find gold or silver. • The treatment of Indians aroused protests but did not lead to more humane practices. • Seeds of economic decline • Gold and silver made Spain the richest and most powerful European state, but the stagnation of trade, inflation, and wasteful government spending sowed seeds of decline.

27. Contact • The Columbian Exchange • The Columbian Exchange caused the most momentous consequences of the European arrival in the Americas. • The most catastrophic result was the exposure of Native Americans to Old World diseases that resulted in the massive decline of Native American populations. • The introduction of cattle, sheep, pigs, and goats brought new sources of food. The horse transformed native cultures. • New food sources were exchanged also as European wheat, melons, and fruit trees spread throughout the Americas and American corn, potatoes, and beans enriched the European diet.

28. Competition for a Continent • Early French efforts in North America • French exploration of North America led to failed attempts to establish settlements in Canada, Carolina, and Florida. • English attempts in the new world • Religious strife delayed English activity in the New World. • English colonization of Ireland supplied a pattern for American colonization based on native peoples as savages and the founding of plantations. • Irish colonization veterans Humphrey Gilbert and later Walter Raleigh sponsored the failed Roanoke colony.

29. Conclusion • Dramatic changes occurred in North America in the 16th century, the Aztec and Inca empires collapsed and large numbers of the native population died from European diseases. • In 1600, North America was still Indian country as only in Mexico and the Caribbean had Europeans established strong colonies.

30. MAP 1–2 West Africa and Europe in 1492 Before Columbus’s voyage, Europeans knew little about the world beyond the Mediterranean basin and the coast of West Africa. Muslim merchants from North Africa largely controlled European traders’ access to African gold and other materials.

31. MAP 1–3 European Voyages of Discovery in the Atlantic in the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries During the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, Europeans embarked on voyages of discovery that carried them to both Asia and the Americas. Portugal dominated the ocean trade with Asia for most of this period. In the New World, reports of Spain’s acquisition of vast wealth soon led France and England to attempt to establish their own territorial claims.

32. MAP 1–4 Spanish, English, and French Settlements in North America in the Sixteenth Century By the end of the sixteenth century, only Spain had established permanent settlements in North America. French outposts in Canada and at Fort Caroline, as well as the English settlement at Roanoke, failed to thrive. European rivalries for North America, however, would intensify after 1600.

33. MEXICO: HERNANDO CORTES is greeted by Montezuma’s messenger in 1519: Mexican Indian painting, 16th century.

34. Women were the principal farmers in most Native American societies, growing corn, beans, and other crops that made up most of their food supply. This sixteenth-century French engraving shows Indian men preparing the soil for cultivation and Indian women sowing seeds in neat rows.

35. Acoma Pueblo has perched atop this 300-foot-tall mesa since the twelfth century. Now used mainly for ceremonial purposes, Acoma was once a thriving Ancestral Puebloan village.

36. This artist’s rendering, based on archaeological evidence, suggests the size and magnificence of the Mississippian city of Cahokia. By the thirteenth century, it was as populous as medieval London, and served as a center of trade for the vast interior of North America.

37. Craftsmen from the West African kingdom of Benin were renowned for their remarkable bronze sculptures. This intricate bronze plaque depicts four African warriors in full military dress. The two tiny figures in the background may be Portuguese soldiers, who first arrived in Benin in the late fifteenth century. Benin bronze plaque. National Museum of African Art, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC, U.S.A. Aldo Tutino/Art Resource, NY.

38. This illustration from a 13th-century Spanish manuscript depicts a clash between Christian and Muslim armies, part of the long struggle known as the reconquista.

39. This 1568 woodcut of a European print shop shows workers setting type in the background, while the men in front print pages for a book. The invention of the printing press revolutionized European society, making information accessible to anyone who could read. During the Reformation, both Protestants and Catholics used the press to spread their views and attack their opponents.

40. Advances in ship design, including the development of the caravel pictured in this fifteenth-century woodcut, made transoceanic voyages possible. The arrangement of sails allowed the caravel to catch the trade winds and move more quickly across the high seas.

41. A decidedly European view of Columbus’s landing appears in this late sixteenth-century print. Columbus and his men, armed with guns and swords, are resplendent in European attire, while nearly naked Indians offer them gifts. To the left, Spaniards erect a cross to claim the land for Christianity. In the upper right, frightened natives flee into the woods.

42. First published in 1535, this woodcut shows Taino Indians panning for gold. Columbus and his men, desperate for riches to bring back to Spain but unaware that gold reserves on most Caribbean islands were quite small, compelled the Indians to search for the precious metal. After only a few decades of forced labor and harsh treatment, the native populations of the islands had all but disappeared.

43. In this illustration from a Spanish monk’s history of the Aztecs, Moctezuma observes a comet plummeting toward the earth, an omen that he believed presaged disaster for his people. The appearance of the comet coincided with the first reports of white-skinned strangers arriving on the coast of Mexico.

44. FIGURE 1–1 Value of New World Treasure Imported into Spain, 1506–1655 During the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries, Spain was the only European power to reap great wealth from North America. The influx of New World treasure, however, slowed the development of Spain’s economy in the long run. [Note: A ducat was a gold coin.] Data Source: J.H. Elliott, Imperial Spain, 1469–1716 (1964), p. 175.

45. This image of Jacques Cartier’s landing on Labrador in 1534 appears on a sixteenth-century map. The geographical orientation is unusual, with North at the bottom of the picture and South at the top. Note the artist’s depiction of well-dressed Europeans meeting fur-clad Indians.

46. This undated photo shows a sculpture of the Kennewick Man reconstructed by sculptor Thomas McClelland with the assistance of anthropologist James Chatters, giving a face to one of the oldest and most complete sets of human remains found in the United States.

47. Aerial view of where Kennewick man bones were found.

48. A plastic casting of the skull from the bones known as Kennewick Man is shown in this July 24, 1997 photo taken in Richland, Washington.

49. John White’s picture of the village of Pomeiooc offers a rare glimpse of a sixteenth-century Eastern Woodlands Indian community. The village is surrounded by a palisade with two entrances; evidence suggests that White exaggerated the spacing of the poles in order to depict the houses inside. Eighteen dwellings constructed of poles and mats are clustered around the village circumference; inside some of them raised sleeping platforms can be seen. Many of the villagers are clustered around a central fire, while others are working or conversing. Algonquian Indian village of Pomeiooc, North Carolina: Watercolor, c. 1585 by John White.