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HIST 302 (Spring 2007) PART 1

HIST 302 (Spring 2007) PART 1. THE WORLD WAR II 1939-1945 The End of the Single-Party Era TRANSITION TO DEMOCRACY 1945-1950 From Single-Party Era to Multi-Party Era DEMOCRAT PARTY ERA 1950 -1960 Transition to Democracy and Liberalism THE SECOND REPUBLIC 1960-1961

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HIST 302 (Spring 2007) PART 1

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  1. HIST 302 (Spring 2007) PART 1

  2. THE WORLD WAR II 1939-1945 The End of the Single-Party Era TRANSITION TO DEMOCRACY 1945-1950 From Single-Party Era to Multi-Party Era DEMOCRAT PARTY ERA 1950 -1960 Transition to Democracy and Liberalism THE SECOND REPUBLIC 1960-1961 27 May 1960 and the 1961 Constitution PLANNING AND ECONOMIC GROWTH 1961-1973 Problems of Pluralism and Democracy

  3. WORLD RECESSION AND CRISIS 1974-1980 Political and Economic Distress THE THIRD REPUBLIC AND REFORMS 1980 - 1991 Political and Economic Restructuring CREDITS AND DEBITS OF GLOBALIZATION UPS AND DOWNS AND RECOVERY 1991 – 2007 Towards the 21st Century

  4. Transition to Democracy Wartime Developments Social Stata (Classes) 1. Peasantry 1945 :% 83 – 40.000 villages 1955: % 71 Small property: the dominant type 2. Industrial Workers – Working Class 3. Middling Strata: Landowners, Businessmen, Intellectuals

  5. Statism created capital and allowed accumulation in private hands Classes / strata differentiated Conflicts arouse Difficulty in maintaining social policy and statism General discontent Peasantry – The largest social group Living standard of peasantry deteriorated

  6. Villages confronted with following problems: 1.    Shortages of land 2.    Farming methods and techniques 3.    Large estates Distribution of national income unbalanced

  7. Measures necessitated by war: a)Industrialization in its initial stage possible only by exploiting internal markets chiefly the rural ones. b) Heavy taxes & unfavorable internal terms of trade despite the removal of tithe (aşar)

  8. Two states organizations: Aim: to help the peasant in time: became a burden on him 1. Office of Soil Products (Toprak Mahsulleri Ofisi) 2. Forestry Enterprise (Orman İşletmeleri) Office of Soil Products 1938 1. To protect peasant through price supports 2. To accumulate farm supplies for army, schools, & needy regions

  9. 2. Forestry Enterprise (Orman İşletmeleri) a.    To exploit forests b.    To conserve existing ones c.    To reforest new areas

  10. Uneven distribution of burden when war broke out 1.    Sharp increase in consumption of soil products Army – from 120.000 to 1.500.000 No official mobilization Ministry of Defence budget % 30 to % 50 Tax raises Increase in money supply – Printing money

  11. 2.    Decrease in agricultural production producers drafted into the army Shortage of bread The Office: authoritarian & unrealistic policy Uneven distribution of the burden Inflation Consumer price index increase: from 100 to 459 Excluding black market prices

  12. Four legislations affecting Single-Party Era 1.National Defence Law- January 1940 (Milli Korunma Kanunu) 2.    Tax on capital (Varlık Vergisi) 1942 3. Agricultural Products Law (Toprak Mahsulleri Vergisi) 1942 4. Land Reform Law (Çiftçiyi Topraklandırma Kanunu) 1945

  13. New wave of state intenvention 1. National Defence Law- January 1940 (Milli Korunma Kanunu) Unlimited powers to authorities : Fix prices Requisition materials (farm products) Impose forced labor (angarya)

  14. Crop prices established arbitrarily below the market prices to keep down cost of bread in cities to peasants’ detriment Paradox: Fixing prices unrealistically low levels to combat inflation Stimulating inflation through monetary / budgetary policy Black market economy boomed Price controls relinquished to further production

  15. Turkey’s GDP, dropped sharply during World War II 1939 level back in 1950 Compulsory contribution of crops All crops in excess of the amount needed for family consumption and seeding to be delivered to the state.  Peasants sold their belongings to meet the contributionquota.

  16. Mountain Villages Forestry Enterprise applied prohibitionist measures Making of charcoal subject to strict & burdensome controls Flocks not allowed entering forests previously used as grazing lands Plus: Villagers to build their own schools Forced labor - Angarya Result: Economic distress

  17. The Industrial Workers The first measures: Political in character and motive Class struggle & related activities punished Political literature on labor suppressed The Labor Act 1936 : Italian labor law Regulated labor relations in an authoritarian manner Labor: considered only as a factor in production The human aspect of labor disregarded – Lack of social policy

  18. Number of workers increased steadily Immigrants from villages 1923: 20.000-30.000 1948: 300.000 in large factories alone Twice in agriculture and small industries With their families, : totalled at least 1.5 million In 1946: Several hundred trade unions [1946 Sendikacılığı] They were dissolved in 1946 [Marxist style] Because: The influence of “leftists”. Martial law – close them down. Western [Liberal] Style – The Trade Union Law 1947

  19. Wages compared with profits of private & state enterprises: remained extremely low Insufficient for adequate standard of living

  20. Trade Union Law 1947  Industrial workers did not benefit from welfare programs until 1945 except for a few measures related to work safety and hygiene.

  21. Government control keeping the workers away from political activity * * * Ministry of Labor 1945. Welfare needs Workers’ insurance law (1945) paid holidayslaw (1951)

  22. The Urban and Rural Middle Classes Landowners, businessmen, industrialists, intelligentsia (including government officials) Three major laws purpose: a) establishing social justice b) stimulating agriculture 2.    Tax on capital (Varlık Vergisi) 1942 3. Agricultural Products Law (Toprak Mahsulleri Vergisi) 1942 4. Land Reform Law (Çiftçiyi Topraklandırma Kanunu) 1945

  23. 2.Tax on capital- Wealth Tax – Varhk Vergisi 1942 to secure addition revenue for urgent military expenditures A tax upon incomes and capital Accumulated through unorthodox means [speculation&black-marketing]

  24. Resentment against war profiteers Target: profiteers & speculators Importers, traders, businessmen & intermediaries imported goods&essential items Huge profit opportunities

  25. Arbitrary (scandalous) taxes on minorities Assesments made by local committees (local goverment oficials, local coincils representatives) enforced by authoritarian methods No fixed rate Not allowed to spread payments % 55 paid by non-Muslim communities Subjected to higher rates - To be paid in 15 days to bring hoarded goods onto the market

  26. Deported / sentenced to forced labor – sent to Aşkale a) Reaction from businessmen b) Criticism from abroad Tax enforcementrelaxed - Abolished in 1944 Irreparable damage to the confidence of minorities & image of Turkey

  27. 3. Agricultural Products Law (Toprak Mahsulleri Vergisi) 1942 To tax wealth in the countryside Target: Large commercial landowners turned out to be a heavy burden on small peasantry Almost a return to tithe (1925) Failed to skim off excess profits from large farmers Fell relatively heavily on small subsistence farmers

  28. 4.LandReform- 1945 • [Çiftçiyi Topraklandırma Kanunu] • 1. Land reform - To distribute land to the landless and land-short peasants sufficient to provide a living – Social concern • 2. Agricultural reform - To furnish equipment for its cultivation - Rationality • Social reform to ameliorate the situation of the peasantry • Purpose: • To distribute land to • landless and land-short peasants • 2. To furnish equipment for cultivation

  29. Course slides available at www. ata.boun.edu.tr/zafer_toprak.htm HIST 302/Koç University /Power Point Presentation: (Spring 2007 Part 1)

  30. Violent criticism of the government  The deputies divided - dissension 1.Social-intellectual & politicalapproach Intellectuals and government officials Distribution of land - Social justice 2. Economic & technical approach Personal land interests Improvement of cultivation methods Rational agriculture and mechanization

  31. Social justice versus The right to private property Partitioning the land (Political) Natural social consequence of populism respect for and guarantee of the right to private property Preservation of the status quo of landed property

  32. Result: Concerted opposition to government The emergence of Democrat Party1946 RPP amended the law to appease the opposition Limiting distribution to treasury and vakıf lands [hazine ve vakıf araziler] Expropriation concerning private propertyprovisionsbarely applied.

  33. The Memorandum of the Four (Dörtlü Takrir) Celal Bayar, Adnan Menderes, Refik Koraltan Fuat Köprülü supported by Vatan and Tan [newspapers] Requirements: a) Turkish constitution be implemented in full b) Democracy established Democrat Party (Demokrat Parti) established in January 1946

  34. National Development Party (Milli Kalkınma Partisi) by Nuri Demirağ - industrialist The liberalization of the economy The development of free enterprise 

  35. Sixth Congress of RPP – met in 1943 Previous congresses [kurultay] 1919-1927-1931-1935-1939 RPP extraordinary congress – May 1946 1. Liberalizing measures 2. Direct elections 3. The position of permanent chairman of the party abolished 4. The title of “National leader” (Milli Şef) annulled

  36. After the congress 1. A liberal press law [Basın özgürlüğü] 2. Autonomy for the university [Üniversite özerkliği] National elections brought forward from July 1947 to July 1946 Catching the Democrats before they fully organize 1946 Elections  DP won 62 of the 465 seats

  37. 1. Massive vote-rigging 2. No guarantee of secrecy during the actual voting 3. No impartial supervision of the elections As soon as the results were declared actual ballots were destroyed making any check impossible

  38. Turkey desperate for foreign financial assistance Applied for membership of the IMF 1947 IMF established in 1944 To qualify for membership: 7 September 1947 Decisions a) A devaluation of Turkish lira by % 120 b) A number of liberalizing measures aimed at the integration of Turkey into the world economy

  39. To qualify for membership 7 September 1947 Decisions A devaluation of Turkish lira by % 120 Liberalizing measures aimed at the integration of Turkey into the world economy

  40. 1946 - A new economic five-year plan similar to pre-war plans Emphasis on autarky and state control 1947 - A new Development Plan echoed the wishes of the Istanbul businessmen and of the DP 1. Free enterprise 2. Development of agriculture and agriculturally based industry 3. Road instead of railways 4. Development of energy sector (oil)

  41. July 1947 Twelfth of July Declaration by İnönü a) Legitimized the existence of the opposition b) Called upon the state apparatus to be impartial Defeat of hard-liners in the RPP headed by Recep Peker Hasan SakareplacedRecep Peker 1949 Şemsettin Günaltay, - a compromise figure

  42. 1947 RPP Congress  RPP moved even closer to the DP program 1. Advocated free enterprise 2. Decided to retract / withdraw art. 17 of Land Reform 3. Allowed religious education in the schools 4. Reformed the Village Institutes

  43. Istanbul Economic Congress - 1948 emphatic in its support for liberal economic policies 1945-1950 years of growth (11 % growth in GDP per year) Economic growth in agricultural sector From 1947 onwards, trade surplus changed into a persistent trade deficit due to fast-rising imports of machinery.

  44. Truman doctrine: 1947 Civil War in Greece American commitment Military and financial support for Greece & Turkey to the defence of anti-communist regimes

  45. Marshall Plan 1947 - 1948 Financial support to European countries Main aim: a) To help them to rebuild their economies Complementary aims: b) To sustain lucrative export market for US industry c) To eliminate poverty as a breeding ground for communism

  46. 1946 - A new economic Five-Year Plan similar to pre-war plans Emphasis on autarky and state control 1947 - A new Development Plan echoed the wishes of the Istanbul business circles and of the DP 1. Free enterprise 2. Development of agriculture and agriculturally based industry 3. Road instead of railways 4. Development of energy sector (oil) 

  47. American Missions American fact-finding missions - commissions The World Bank Report 1949 influencial in government circles in line with the 1947 Plan Hardly any difference between the economic policies of the DP and of the RPP Exception: the DP wanted to sell off the state industries (KİT)

  48. Turkey moving in the direction of a more effective parliamentary democracy Transition to modern community of mobile, participant citizens Population increased 13,5 million in 1927 21 million in 1950 The proportion living in cities rose significantly An increase in urbanization

  49. Literacy increased A literate, urban population New interests and habits Anxious to be kept informed – Public opinion The number and circulation of newspapers rose steadily The number of wireless sets increased The modernization of communication

  50. RECOVERY 1945-1950 - years of growth (11 % growth in GDP per year) From very low level of economic activity of WWII Large gold & foreign exchange stocks accumulated during WWII Purchase of chrome ore by belligerents Nonavailability of imports

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