CIVILIZATIONS IN CRISIS, CONFLICT AND CHANGE

1. CIVILIZATIONS IN CRISIS, CONFLICT AND CHANGE CHAPTER 31

2. EURASIA CIVILIZATIONS IN CRISIS • The Problem for the Middle Eastern empires and Qing China • Internal Political Decline and inability to reform • Western Intrusion economically, socially and politically • 1750 • Manchu China in 1750 • Came to power in 1644 • Manchu were last nomadic invaders to overrun a sedentary state – took name of Qing • It appeared that China would recover fully under the Manchus • Looked like Western merchants could be contained at the ports of Macao and Canton. • The Muslim States in 1750 • The Ottoman Empire seemed on the verge of collapse in the 18th century • Internal independence movements • European encroachments • Political disarray at Constantinople • India and Persia were weakening and increasingly under pressure from West • 1850 • Qing China • European military intervention in China exposed the Qing dynasty as weak to external assault • Internal disruptions swept away the imperial system of China, leaving little in its place • Foreign forces competed for dominance in the wreckage of the Qing Empire • The Ottoman Empire recovered from is 18th-century malaise. • Much of the Middle East was lost • Turkish reformers overthrew the sultanate but quickly reformulated a new government

3. OTTOMAN PROBLEMS • The Ottoman Empire depended on capable sultans • The quality of rulers declined • Internal disintegration was rapid • Factional struggles within the palace common • Corruption of provincial officials paralyzed government. • Economic Decline • Competition with European imports hurt • Destroyed the market for Ottoman products • Urban artisans rebelled. • Ottomans became progressively more dependent on European goods. • External Pressure • Was severe. • First the Habsburg Empire and then the Russians seized territory. • Independence movements in the Balkans arose • Threw off Ottoman rule.

4. REFORM AND SURVIVAL • Britain as savior • Britain, France intervene in Crimean War • Prevented Russian access; saved the Ottoman Empire from collapse • Reforming Sultans • Sultan Selim III • Tried to enact military and administrative changes • Angered the Janissaries, who overthrew him in 1807. • Sultan Mahmud II • Fear of Janissary conservatism led Sultan Mahmud II to destroy the corps in 1826. • Created a diplomatic corps and westernized the remaining military forces. • Tanzimat reforms from 1839 to 1876 • Westernization was introduced to other facets of Ottoman society • University education was reorganized • Postal and telegraph systems were introduced; newspapers were established • Legal reforms were mandated • New constitution along Western lines appeared in 1876 as the culmination of the reforms. • Artisans suffered from the opening of the empire to Western trade • Women gained little from the reforms

5. REPRESSION AND REVOLT • Reaction • The reforms produced a Western-educated elite • Many came to view the sultanate itself as archaic. • Sultan Abdul Hamid reacted by nullifying the new constitution • Imprisoned many of the Western-oriented elite • Young Turks • Resistance to Abdul Hamid'sreactionism led to his overthrow in 1908 • Young Turks • A group of military officers seized the government • Restored the constitution and promised additional reforms • The sultan was reduced to a powerless religious figurehead • The officers proved no more successful than the sultans • Arab portions of empire became increasingly resistant to Turkish rule • Turkey In World War I • Turkey participated in World War I on the side of the Germans • Initiated the final dissolution of the Ottoman Empire • Allies supported Arabs, Greeks, Armenians and partition

6. EGYPT • Muhammad Ali in Egypt • Emerged as the ruler of the region • He introduced Western-style military reforms • Enabled him to ignore the Ottoman sultan • Muhammad Ali extended his control to Arab Syria • Economic reforms based on commercial crops • Export of cotton less successful • Muhammad Ali’s Khedive successors • Muhammad Ali's successors continued his general plans with disastrous results. • Cotton production expanded at the expense of food products. • As a single export commodity, cotton vulnerable to price, demand swings in world market • Educational reforms were limited to the elite • The general population barely profited from the reforms. • By the middle of the 19th century • Khedives were heavily in debt to European creditors • Europeans were attracted to Egyptian cotton and the plan to construct the Suez Canal • Islamic intellectuals met in Egypt to discuss means of expelling the European threat • Some argued for strict Islamic religious observance • Others for greater Westernization in science and technology • The two groups were unable to reconcile their different approaches. • French and British investors • Held the majority of shares in the Suez Canal • Urged their governments to intervene directly in Egypt • An Egyptian army rebellion under Ahmad Orabi • British send military units to Egypt in 1882 • Thereafter the administration of Egypt was in the hands of British consuls.

7. THE SUDAN • Egypt and the Sudan • Egyptian forces long engaged in attempts to extend control down the Nile River • The khedives enjoyed little success • Their control was limited to towns,such as Khartoum • Attempts in the 1870s to eliminate the slave trade added to discontent • Resistance and Revolt • Resistance to Egyptian and British influence was focused by Muhammad Achmad • He was head of a Sufi brotherhood in the Sudan • Took title of Mahdi, claimed descent from Muhammad, declared a jihad • He offered to purge Islam of foreign influences and restore purity • Military forces of the Mahdi enjoyed military success against Egyptians • His role as leader of the Sudan insurgence was taken by KhalifaAbdallahi. • British Respond • A British expeditionary force led by General Kitchener defeated the Mahdist army in 1898 • The British thus extended their power along the Nile • Much Islamic territory passed under the control of Western forces during the 19th century. • Neither reformers and religious revolutionaries were able to slow the process • Could not halt it entirely • Islamic civilization became increasingly anxious over its fate.

8. THE MANCHUS • Nurhaci • Able to unite the Manchu nomads • Created eight banner armies • Introduced Chinese administrative reforms into government • 1644 • Local Chinese official invited the Manchus within the Great Wall • Nomads advanced, captured the Beijing in 1644 • The Manchus were able to establish a new dynasty • The Qing • The Qing incorporated much of former Ming including scholar-gentry • Direct role appointment of local officials • Ethnic Chinese continued to be admitted into imperial government • Manchus, unlike Mongols, retained civil-service examination system.

9. MANCHU SOCIETY • Manchus preserved the Confucian social hierarchy • Women subject to patriarchal authority in home • They might gain some control over household activities. • The Peasants • Qing attempted to relieve distress among peasantry • Population pressures made their efforts virtually useless. • Value of labor fell • Rural landlords gained stranglehold over rural economy • Commerce and the City • Commercial and urban expansion continued under the Qing • Profits from exports produced new group of merchants • Called compradors, they specialized in silk exports • Also worked in Canton with foreigners as middlemen

10. BREAKDOWN, DISSINTEGRATION • By the late 18th century • Corruption riddled civil-service examination system • Posts became hereditary or available for purchase • Wealthy families • Used bureaucracy as a means of establishing local authority. • Revenues diverted from state projects to enrich bureaucrats • Spending on military, public works projects declined • Floods wiped out some of most productive farmland • Food shortages produced widespread peasant migrations • Rise of banditry • Problems were of such scale that the normal cycle of dynastic decline and replacement was threatened.

11. OPIUM WAR AND AFTER • The Westerners are Coming, the Westerners are Coming! • A new type of barbarian, the Europeans, threatened China • British plan to export opium from India to China • Wanted to improve their balance of trade (stop loss of silver) • Qing recognized threat to its economy and its society • In the 1830s • Emperor appointed Lin Zexu to stamp out opium trade • Lin blockaded Canton and confiscated European opium supplies. • British merchants demanded their government intervene to protect profits • In 1839 • British routed the Chinese junks in the first stages of the Opium War. • British sent a military force ashore, the Qing emperor sued for peace. • British obtain Hong Kong • Forced China to open ports to trade and recognize extraterritoriality of foreigners • By the 1890s • 90 Chinese ports were open to European, Japanese, and American merchants • Britain, France, Germany, and Russia actually leased certain ports and their hinterlands • Trade passed increasingly into the hands of the non-Chinese • Qing court was forced to accept European diplomats.

12. FAILED REFORMS • Defeat by the British helped to set off series of rebellions against the Qing • In the 1850s and 1860s • The Taiping Rebellion • A semi-Christian movement under a prophetic leader, who wanted • Land redistribution and the liberation of women • End to influence of the Confucian scholar-gentry • Provincial forces finally defeated the rebellion; more than 50 million dead in civil war • Honest officials at the provincial level • Began to carry out much needed reforms; built railways, modernized military • Resources moved from the central court to the provinces • Qing Reaction • Manchus continued to obstruct almost all programs of reform • Defeats by Europeans and Japanese continue • French in Indo-China 1885 and British in the Arrow War 1860s • Sino-Japanese War in 1895 • The Dowager Empress Cixi • Cixi assumed regency for her son, grandson – refused all attempts at reform • Clandestinely supported the Boxer Rebellion from 1898 to 1901 as a means of ousting foreign influence. • Boxer Rebellion • Society of Righteous and Harmonious Firsts • Anti-modernization, anti-westernization forces in country side • Attacked western built technology and missionaries; attacked European diplomats in Beijing • Europeans, US, Japanese intervene to rescue diplomats • Forced China to accept Western control and intervention in their society, politics

13. FALL OF THE QING • Resistance • Resistance to the Qing centered in secret societies • Sponsored local uprisings against the central government • Western-educated compradors and some scholar-gentry involved • Goals • Drew on Western ideas for a reformed government • Wanted to restore Chinese territorial integrity, expel foreigners from their soil • Sun Yat Sen • Western educated doctor who became a leader of China after 1911 Revolution • Sought to build a Chinese nation-state on a western model • Favored wide-spread social reforms especially for peasants and workers • 1911 Revolution • Widespread uprisings throughout China by the secret societies • Could not be put down by provincial officials • Military often joined rebellion in open mutiny • In 1912, the last Qing emperor, Puyi, a boy of 12, abdicated. • Prior to their abdication the Qing had abandoned the Confucian examination system • Abandonment of the examinations signaled the end of patterns of civilization in China

14. GLOBAL CONNECTIONS • Muslims • Long accustomed to the military threat posed by the West. • Could justify some borrowing from West on basis of a shared Judeo-Christian , Greek heritage • More politically fragmented than Chinese but Muslims had time to learn from early mistakes. • Muslims could always fall back on religious faith as a last resort. • China • West's military dominance came as a rude surprise. • China had remained intentionally culturally isolated from the West. • They regarded Western culture as barbaric. • The Chinese equated the survival of the civilization with the maintenance of the Qing dynasty. • When the dynasty collapsed, Chinese civilization was destroyed. • Chinese had no great religious tradition to counter European belief in its inherent superiority. • Versus Other Lands • China and the Ottoman Muslim lands differed from Africa • They were only partially colonized • Differed from Latin America • Which had deeper ties to the West • Differed from Russia and Japan • Which industrialized and which maintained independence.

15. WHAT IS IT? • TAIPING REBELLION • TANZIMAT REFORMS • SUEZ CANAL • OPIUM WARS • SELF-STRENGTHENING MOVEMENT • BOXER REBELLION • EXTRATERRITORIALITY • TREATY PORTS • OPEN DOOR POLICY

16. WHO ARE THEY? • YOUNG TURKS • MUHAMMAD ALI (MEHMET ALI) • KHEDIVES • AL AFGHANI • THE MADHI • NURHACI • MANCHUS/QING • COMPRADORS • COMMISSIONER LIN • HONG XIUGUAN • SUN YAT SEN