CIVILIZATIONS IN CRISIS, CONFLICT AND CHANGE

1. CIVILIZATIONS IN CRISIS, CONFLICT AND CHANGE THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE, ISLAMIC HEARTLAND, AND QING CHINA

2. EURASIA CIVILIZATIONS IN CRISIS: CHINA • The Problem for the Middle Eastern empires and Qing China • Internal Political Decline and inability to reform • Western Intrusion economically, socially and politically • 1750 • Manchu or Qing China • Came to power in 1644 • Manchu were last nomadic invaders to overrun a sedentary state • Took name of Qing • It appeared that China would recover fully under the Manchus • Western merchants contained at the ports of Macao and Canton. • 1850 • Manchu or Qing China • European military intervention exposed Qing dynasty as weak • Vulnerable to external assault • Internal disruptions swept away the imperial system of China, • Little available to take its place • Foreign forces competed for dominance in the wreckage of China

3. EURASIA CIVILIZATIONS IN CRISIS: MIDDLE EAST • The Problem for the Middle Eastern empires and Qing China • Internal Political Decline and inability to reform • Western Intrusion economically, socially and politically • 1750 • The Muslim States in 1750 • Ottoman Empire seemed on verge of collapse in the 18th century • Internal independence movements • European encroachments • Political disarray at Constantinople • India, Persia weakening and increasingly under pressure from West • Egypt was part of Ottoman with similar internal, external problems • 1850 • Persia changed dynasties but made little progress • The Ottoman Empire recovered from is 18th-century malaise. • Much of the Middle East was lost • Turkish reformers overthrew the sultanate • Quickly reformulated a new government • Egypt had attempted to break away, reform only to be defeated

4. OTTOMAN PROBLEMS • The Ottoman Empire depended on capable sultans • The quality of rulers declined • Internal disintegration was rapid • Factional struggles within the palace common • Corruption of provincial officials paralyzed government. • Economic Decline • Competition with European imports hurt • Destroyed the market for Ottoman products • Urban artisans rebelled. • Ottomans increasingly dependent on European goods • External Pressure • Was severe – European armies modern, powerful • Habsburg Empire and Russia seized territory • Independence movements in the Balkans arose • Distant provinces ignored, threw off Ottoman rule

5. REFORM AND SURVIVAL • Britain as savior • Britain, France intervene in Crimean War • Prevented Russian access; saved the Ottoman Empire from collapse • Reforming Sultans • Sultan Selim III • Tried to enact military and administrative changes • Angered the Janissaries, who overthrew him in 1807. • Sultan Mahmud II • Janissary conservatism led Sultan to destroy corps in 1826. • Created a diplomatic corps, westernized remaining military forces • Tanzimat reforms from 1839 to 1876 • Westernization was introduced to other facets of Ottoman society • University education was reorganized • Postal, telegraph systems introduced; newspapers were established • Legal reforms were mandated • New constitution along Western lines appeared in 1876 • Considered the culmination of the reforms. • Artisans suffered from the opening of the empire to Western trade • Women gained little from the reforms

6. THE CHANGING OTTOMAN MAP

7. REPRESSION AND REVOLT • Reaction • The reforms produced a Western-educated elite • Many came to view the sultanate itself as archaic • Increasing Turks see Sultan as anti-modern • Sultan Abdul Hamid reacted by nullifying the new constitution • Imprisoned many of the Western-oriented elite • Young Turks • Resistance to Abdul Hamid'sreactionism led to his overthrow in 1908 • Young Turks • A group of military officers seized the government • Leader was Mustapha Kemal, Enver Pasha • Restored the constitution and promised additional reforms • The sultan was reduced to a powerless religious figurehead • The officers proved no more successful than the sultans • At first, emphasized an Ottoman nationality • Increasingly emphasized a Turkish nationality over all others • Arab portions of empire became increasingly resistant to Turkish rule • Turkey In World War I • Turkey participated in World War I on the side of the Germans • Initiated the final dissolution of the Ottoman Empire • Allies supported Arabs, Greeks, Armenians and partition

8. HOW EUROPE VIEWED THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE Change of Clothes Butcher, 1st Class

9. Mehmet aliof Egypt • Mehmet (Muhammad) Ali in Egypt • Albanian Ottoman governor of Egypt • Enabled him to ignore the Ottoman sultan and function independently • Goals • Introduce a European style state • Reorganize Egyptian society, modernize Egyptian economy • Train a professional western-style bureaucracy • Build a western style military • Muhammad Ali’s Reforms • Nationalized all land in Egypt, raised taxes throughout Egypt • Declared trade a state monopoly: established a textile industry • Introduced production of cotton as way to boost state wealth, influence • Boosted wages for workers, farmers enormously • Introduced corvee system on peasants to obtain labor: very unpopular • Built a preliminary industrial base to support his army and navy • Sent promising students to study in Europe and hired European advisors • Muhammad Ali’s Foreign Policy • Modern army and navy threatened Ottomans and many European powers • Muhammad Ali extended his control to Arab Syria, Holy Cities, Sudan • Ottomans asked him to put down Greek Rebellion in 1820s • Egypt intervened, which prompted European navies to destroy his fleet, army • Later war with Ottomans over Syria prompted European intervention again • Later years saw his reforms collapse

10. Images of muhammadali’segypt

11. EGYPT • Muhammad Ali’s Khedive successors • Muhammad Ali's successors continued his general plans with disastrous results • Cotton production expanded at the expense of food products. • As a single export commodity, cotton vulnerable to price, demand swings in world market • Educational reforms were limited to the elite • The general population barely profited from the reforms. • By the middle of the 19th century • Khedives were heavily in debt to European creditors • Europeans were attracted to Egyptian cotton and the plan to construct the Suez Canal • Islamic intellectuals met in Egypt to discuss means of expelling the European threat • Some argued for strict Islamic religious observance • Others for greater Westernization in science and technology • The two groups were unable to reconcile their different approaches. • Building the Suez Canal • Ferdinand de Lessups • French engineer convinced Khedive to build canal linking Mediterranean, Red Seas • Modern technology made it possible • Opened 1869 to much acclaim • Khedives squandered wealth from canal, increasingly in debt to westerners • French and British investors • Held the majority of shares in the Suez Canal • Urged their governments to intervene directly in Egypt • An Egyptian army rebellion under Ahmad Orabi • British send military units to Egypt in 1882 • Thereafter the administration of Egypt was in the hands of British consuls.

12. The Suez canal

13. THE SUDAN • Egypt and the Sudan • Egyptian forces long engaged in attempts to extend control down the Nile River • The khedives enjoyed little success • Their control was limited to towns such as Khartoum • Attempts in the 1870s to eliminate the slave trade added to discontent • Resistance and Revolt • Resistance to Egyptian and British influence was focused by Muhammad Achmad • He was head of a Sufi brotherhood in the Sudan • Took title of Mahdi, claimed descent from Muhammad, declared a jihad • He offered to purge Islam of foreign influences and restore purity • Military forces of the Mahdi enjoyed military success against Egyptians • His role as leader of the Sudan insurgence was taken by KhalifaAbdallahi • British Respond • British expeditionary force defeated the Mahdist army in 1898 • The British thus extended their power along the Nile • Much Islamic territory passed under control of Western forces during 19th century • Neither reformers and religious revolutionaries were able to slow the process • Could not halt it entirely • Islamic civilization became increasingly anxious over its fate

14. Charge of the dervishes at Omdurman

15. THE MANCHUS • Nurhaci • Able to unite the Manchu nomads • Created eight banner armies • Introduced Chinese administrative reforms into government • Called his dynasty Qing • 1644 • Local Chinese official invited the Manchus within the Great Wall • Nomads advanced, captured the Beijing in 1644 • The Manchus were able to establish a new dynasty • The Qing • The Qing incorporated much of former Ming including scholar-gentry • Direct role appointment of local officials • Ethnic Chinese continued to be admitted into imperial government • Manchus, unlike Mongols, retained civil-service examination system. • The Qing Sons of Heaven • The first Qing rulers were models of Confucianism • Generous patrons of the arts • Kangxi was both a patron and a scholar

16. MANCHU SOCIETY • Manchus preserved the Confucian social hierarchy • Neo-Confucianism was the predominant philosophy • 5 Relationships emphasized in education, imperial edicts • Family remained at the core of society • Secret societies and innovation viewed with suspicion • Gender • Wives chosen from one social rank lower than husbands • Women subject to patriarchal authority in home • They might gain some control over household activities • Female infanticide seems to have increased • The Peasants • Qing attempted to relieve distress among peasantry • Initially lowered taxes and labor demands • 10% of imperial budget went to maintaining infrastructure • Population pressures made their efforts virtually useless • Value of labor fell • Rural landlords gained stranglehold over rural economy • Commerce and the City • Commercial, urban expansion continued under the Qing • Profits from exports produced new group of merchants • Called compradors, they specialized in silk exports • Also worked in Canton with foreigners as middlemen

17. QING CHINA: CANTON TRADE

18. BREAKDOWN, DISSINTEGRATION • By the late 18th century • Corruption riddled civil-service • Cheating common on the civil service exam • Rise of uneducated bureaucrats hurt government • Posts became hereditary or available for purchase • Wealthy families • Used bureaucracy as means of establishing local authority. • Revenues diverted from state to enrich bureaucrats • Spending on military, public works projects declined • Decline in competency of the military • Floods wiped out some of most productive farmland • Food shortages produced peasant migrations • Rise of banditry and homeless populations • Problems were of such scale that the normal cycle of dynastic decline and replacement was threatened.

19. OPIUM WAR

20. OPIUM WAR AND AFTER • The Westerners are Coming, the Westerners are Coming! • A new type of barbarian, the Europeans, threatened China • British plan to export opium from India to China • Wanted to improve their balance of trade (stop loss of silver) • Qing recognized threat to its economy and its society • In the 1830s • Emperor appointed Lin Zexu to stamp out opium trade • Lin blockaded Canton and confiscated European opium supplies. • British merchants demanded their government intervene to protect profits • In 1839 • British routed the Chinese junks in the first stages of the Opium War. • British sent a military force ashore, the Qing emperor sued for peace. • British obtain Hong Kong • Forced China to open ports to trade , recognize extraterritoriality of foreigners • By the 1890s • 90 Chinese ports open to European, Japanese, American merchants • Britain, France, Germany, Russia leased certain ports, hinterlands • Trade passed increasingly into the hands of the non-Chinese • Qing court was forced to accept European diplomats.

21. Partitioning chinaand the boxer rebellion

22. FAILED REFORMS • Defeat by the British helped to set off series of rebellions against the Qing • The Taiping Rebellion: 1850s and 1860s • A semi-Christian movement under a prophetic leader, who wanted • Land redistribution and the liberation of women • End to influence of the Confucian scholar-gentry • Provincial forces finally defeated rebellion; more than 50 million dead in civil war • Self-Strengthening Movement • Provincial leaders began to carry out much needed reforms • Built railways and factories, modernized military • Resources moved from the central court to the provinces • Qing Reaction • Manchus continued to obstruct almost all programs of reform • Defeats by Europeans and Japanese continue • French in Indo-China 1885 and British in the Arrow War 1860s • Sino-Japanese War in 1895 • The Dowager Empress Cixi • Cixi assumed regency for her son, grandson – refused all attempts at reform • Supported Boxer Rebellion as means of ousting foreign influence. • Boxer Rebellion • Society of Righteous and Harmonious Firsts • Anti-modernization, anti-westernization forces in country side • Attacked western built technology , missionaries, diplomats in Beijing • Europeans, US, Japanese intervene to rescue diplomats • Forced China to accept Western control and intervention in their society, politics

23. TREATY PORTS AND REBELLIONS IN QING CHINA

24. LATE QING REBELLIONS

25. FALL OF THE QING • Resistance • Resistance to the Qing centered in secret societies • Sponsored local uprisings against the central government • Western-educated compradors and some scholar-gentry involved • Goals • Drew on Western ideas for a reformed government • Wanted to restore Chinese territorial integrity, expel foreigners from their soil • Sun YatSen • Western educated doctor became a leader of China after 1911 Revolution • Sought to build a Chinese nation-state on a western model • Favored wide-spread social reforms especially for peasants and workers • 1911 Revolution • Widespread uprisings throughout China by the secret societies • Could not be put down by provincial officials • Military often joined rebellion in open mutiny • In 1912, the last Qing emperor, Puyi, a boy of 12, abdicated • Prior to abdication Qing had abandoned Confucian examination system • Abandonment of examinations signaled end of patterns in China

26. Imagining the 1911 revolution

27. GLOBAL CONNECTIONS • Muslims • Long accustomed to the military threat posed by the West. • Could justify some borrowing from West on basis of a shared Judeo-Christian , Greek heritage • More politically fragmented than Chinese but Muslims had time to learn from early mistakes. • Muslims could always fall back on religious faith as a last resort. • China • West's military dominance came as a rude surprise. • China had remained intentionally culturally isolated from the West. • They regarded Western culture as barbaric. • Chinese equated survival of civilization with maintenance of the Qing • When the dynasty collapsed, Chinese civilization was destroyed. • Chinese had no great religious tradition to counter European belief in its inherent superiority. • Versus Other Lands • China and the Ottoman Muslim lands differed from Africa • They were only partially colonized • Often able to maintain independence and seek own internal reforms • Differed from Latin America • Which had deeper ties to the West • Attempted economic modernization, westernization • Differed from Russia and Japan • Which industrialized and which maintained independence • Both also partially westernized

28. WHAT IS IT? • TAIPING REBELLION • TANZIMAT REFORMS • SUEZ CANAL • OPIUM WARS • SELF-STRENGTHENING MOVEMENT • BOXER REBELLION • EXTRATERRITORIALITY • TREATY PORTS • OPEN DOOR POLICY

29. WHO ARE THEY? • YOUNG TURKS • MUHAMMAD ALI (MEHMET ALI) • KHEDIVES • AL AFGHANI • THE MADHI • NURHACI • MANCHUS/QING • COMPRADORS • COMMISSIONER LIN • HONG XIUGUAN • SUN YAT SEN