International Policymaking in Leisure and Tourism Governance

1. CABI TOURISM TEXTS 4th EditionLeisure, Sport andTourism, Politics,Policy and Planning A. J. Veal COMPLEMENTARY TEACHING MATERIALS

2. Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning, 4th Edition CHAPTER 6 Public Policymaking Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning, 4th edition, Veal, 2017, CABI Tourism Texts

3. Outline Introduction International dimensions Formal national constitutions Other institutions Models of decision-making Urban growth regimes and governance of the local state Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning, 4th edition, Veal, 2017, CABI Tourism Texts

4. International dimensions: Agreements etc. (Table 6.1) • UN terminology: • Treaties • matters of some gravity , typically requiring ratification • e.g. Treaty of Rome, 1957 – origin of the EU • Agreements • less formal, narrower subject-matter, limited number of states, technical/administrative, not subject to ratification • e.g. General Agreement of Tariffs and Trade (GATT) – predecessor to WTO agreements • Conventions • instruments negotiated under the auspices of an international organization • e.g. Convention on the Rights of the Child, 1989 ( UNICEF) • World Heritage Convention, 1972 (UNESCO) Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning, 4th edition, Veal, 2017, CABI Tourism Texts

5. Agreements (cont’d) • Charters • particularly formal and solemn instruments, such as the constituent treaty of an international organization • e.g. UN Charter; Olympic Charter • Protocols • an instrument 'subsidiary to a treaty' or 'framework’ • the Kyoto Protocol, 1997 re UN Framework Convention on Climate Change, 1992 • Declarations • often not binding – statement of aspirations • Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, 1992 Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning, 4th edition, Veal, 2017, CABI Tourism Texts

6. International organizations – regulatory (Table 6.2) • IATA – International Air Transport Authority • ITU – International Telecommunications Union • WTO – World Trade Organization • WHC – World Heritage Committee of UNESCO – UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Org. • CAS – Court of Arbitration for Sport • WADA – World Anti-Doping Agency Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning, 4th edition, Veal, 2017, CABI Tourism Texts

7. International organizations: advisory, specialist, etc. • WLO – World Leisure Organisation • IOC – International Olympic Committee • IPC – International Paralympic Committee • IFs – International Federations of (individual) Sport • CGF – Commonwealth Games Federation • UNWTO – UN World Tourism Organisation • IUCN – International Union for the Conservation of Nature Conservation Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning, 4th edition, Veal, 2017, CABI Tourism Texts

8. Supra-national bodies – e.g. European Union (Box 6.1) • 27/28 member countries cede power over (commercial) competition policy to European Commission • Includes sport • Sporting leagues are ‘uncompetitive’ because of collusion: • player contracts • broadcasting rights Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning, 4th edition, Veal, 2017, CABI Tourism Texts

9. Formal national constitutionsunitary versus federal (Table 6.3) • Unitary: • only one level of government (+ local government) • e.g. New Zealand, Ireland • Federal: • additional state/provincial level of government • e.g. USA, Australia • Leisure, sport, tourism often administered by all levels (see Table 6.5) Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning, 4th edition, Veal, 2017, CABI Tourism Texts

10. Westminster model HEAD of STATE: ‘Ceremonial President’ or ‘Monarch’ PARLIAMENT Upper House (Senate/House of Lords*) GOVERNMENT Prime Minister (Head of govt) + Ministers ELECTED Lower House (House of Reps/ House of Commons * Hereditary/ appointed in UK

11. Presidential model:US style GOVERNMENT Executive President = Head of State and Head of Government AppointedMinisters ELECTED CONGRESS SENATE ELECTED HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES ELECTED

12. Presidential model: French style As in Westminster system, but: • elected executive President, with: • specific areas of responsibility, typically: • appointing prime minister • foreign affairs and defence Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning, 4th edition, Veal, 2017, CABI Tourism Texts

13. Formal national constitutions –unitary versus federal (Table 6.3) • Unitary: • only one level of government (+ local government); e.g. New Zealand, Ireland • Federal: • additional state/provincial level of government; e.g. USA, Australia • Leisure, sport, tourism often administered by all levels (see Table 6.5) Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning, 4th edition, Veal, 2017, CABI Tourism Texts

14. Forming governments • Political parties form around ideologies/group interests (see Ch. 2) • Members of parliament elected as members of political parties (+ independents) with manifesto/programme • Leader of party with majority forms government • Laws created by bills presented to, and approved by, both houses • Signed into law by head of state • bill becomes an Act Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning, 4th edition, Veal, 2017, CABI Tourism Texts

15. Location of Leisure, Sport, Tourism

16. Location of Leisure, Sport, Tourism Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning, 4th edition, Veal, 2017, CABI Tourism Texts

17. Location of Leisure, Sport, Tourism Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning, 4th edition, Veal, 2017, CABI Tourism Texts

18. Other institutions 1: statutory bodies/authorities • Appointed/funded by gov’t (+ lotteries + licence fees) • ‘Arms-length’ principle • Used extensively in the arts, sport, public broadcasting: • e.g. public broadcasting corporations (BBC, ABC, CBC) • arts councils • sports councils • heritage commissions Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning, 4th edition, Veal, 2017, CABI Tourism Texts

19. Other institutions 2: non-profit/voluntary sector • Non-profit trusts used in the arts, education • Non-profit sector in sport • governing bodies • sport clubs • International Olympic Committee Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning, 4th edition, Veal, 2017, CABI Tourism Texts

20. Other institutions 3: public–private partnerships • Joint investment in a project by government (at any level) and private sector • Typically via a jointly owned company • See urban growth regimes Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning, 4th edition, Veal, 2017, CABI Tourism Texts

21. Models of decision-making • Power-based models • Rationality models • Public choice • Institutional approaches • Personality, cognition and information-processing Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning, 4th edition, Veal, 2017, CABI Tourism Texts

22. Power-based models • Elitism • power (formal and informal) is in the hand of elites – industry, money, class • Pluralism • power is shared by/competed for by many groups Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning, 4th edition, Veal, 2017, CABI Tourism Texts

23. Political pluralism (Fig. 6.2) GOVERNMENT ELECTEDREPRESENTATIVES Pressure groups The people/electors/ taxpayers/ratepayers Business/ professions Religious organizations etc.

24. Power-based models (cont’d) • Marxism • the state supports the interests of capitalism • Corporatism • government controlled by industrial/commercial interests • Professionalism • power lies with professionals – e.g. public servants, Treasury economists • Technocracy • power wielded by technocrats – e.g. defence/nuclear • Hallmark decision-making • decisions made by government/growth regimes for big projects without ‘due process’ – e.g. large building projects, hosting the Olympic Games Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning, 4th edition, Veal, 2017, CABI Tourism Texts

25. Rationality models Rational-comprehensive model

26. Rational-comprehensive model(Fig. 6.3) 1. Terms of reference/brief 2. Values/mission/vision/goals 3. Decide planning approach 4. Environmental appraisal 5. Consult with stakeholders 6. Develop options 7. Evaluate options 8. Decide strategy/goals/ objectives 9. Implement/manage 10. Monitor/evaluate/ Feedback

27. Rational-comprehensive model (cont’d) • Unrealistic/impractical? • Alternatives: • Simon: ‘bounded rationality’ • Lindblom: disjointed incrementalism: ‘muddling through’ • Etzioni: mixed scanning Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning, 4th edition, Veal, 2017, CABI Tourism Texts

28. Other approaches • Public choice model • democratic process is similar to markets • voting power = consumer market power • Institutional approaches • decision-making is influenced by institutional structures • Personal, cognition, information processing • decision-making is influenced by personality, etc., of leaders Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning, 4th edition, Veal, 2017, CABI Tourism Texts

29. Urban growth regimes and governance of the local state • Urban growth regimes: • consortia of politicians and business interests who pursue a particular growth agenda for a city • e.g. redevelopment of city centre; attracting a sport franchise; hosting Olympic Games • Idea of the ‘local state’ • governance = all ‘players’ in local state Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning, 4th edition, Veal, 2017, CABI Tourism Texts

30. Local state (Fig. 6.4) Higher levels of government (legal framework + funding) COUNCIL Other statutory bodies Political parties Elected councillors/ Mayor Citizens/ ratepayers Voluntary service-providing bodies Media Paid council officers Trade unions Businesses/ business organizations Pressure groups Clients