Chapter 28 Descent into the Abyss: WWI and the Crisis of the European Global Order

1. Chapter 28Descent into the Abyss: WWI and the Crisis of the European Global Order EQ: To what extent did war undermine colonial empires and lead to an end of European dominance?

2. Introduction Causes – M.A.I.N. The Coming of the Great War • A combination of imperialism, arms races, industrial might, and nationalism pushed the Great Powers of Europe into a regional conflict that quickly exploded into a global war of unprecedented devastation. • War broke out on the Western Front, central and eastern Europe, the Middle east, and a number of key locations in sub-Saharan Africa. • Among the many results were a loss of global power for Europe, the rise of the United States and Japan, Bolshevism in Russia, increased nationalism among European colonies around the world, and political and social power shifts in several nations. • Militarism • Alliances • Industrialism/Imperialism • Nationalism • Imperial rivalries getting stronger • a. Prestige of nation linked to size of empire, however nations ran out of areas to colonize • b. Jingoism – super warlike nationalism – middle/working class caught up

3. Causes – con’t However, these diplomatic and military competitions combined with social unrest—especially labor—at home produced a tense atmosphere among the Great Powers by 1914. Arms race • Intense/costly • Germany’s navy threatens Britain’s centuries control of seas • Arms limitations agreements failed • Constantly practiced maneuvers – moved troops – always prepared (Pushed for preemptive strike) • Russia getting stronger Foreign policy connected to domestic problems • Business classes challenged by labor/lower classes • Foreign wars distracts from domestic problems • Proletariat/business owners benefit • Industrialists get to make more products – win/win

4. CHOOSE A SIDE • By 1914, diplomatic tensions, colonial rivalries, and arms races among the Great Powers of Europe—England, France, Germany, and Russia—led to the creation of two opposing groups, each dedicated to out-maneuvering the other. • Each of the alliances were anchored on secret treaties that committed those who joined to come to each other’s assistance in case of an attack by an outside rival power. • Triple Entente – Russia, France, Britain – two front war • Triple Alliance – Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy • Italy not that excited – doesn’t like Austria-Hungary. Switches sides in 1915

5. The Outbreak of War • Balkans become center of crisis • Ethnically diverse, wants independence, Russia supports Serbs • July 1914 a serbian, GavrielPrincip assassinates heir Archduke Ferdinand • Austro-Hungary assumes Germany will support – “blank check” • Russians support Slavic brothers • Europe’s leaders expected the war to be brief and decisive, a war that would break the knot of tensions that had built up over decades • Contrary to their expectations, the war quickly bogged down into one of long stalemate and unprecedented death. • Regional conflict turns continental – armies mobilized • Confusion – is mobilization a threat or actual war • a. Germany decides to strike first – avoid two-front war • Germany goes through Belgium – Britain declares war • a. All of Britain’s colonial holdings brought into war

6. The War in the East and Italy • Russian weaknesses – highest casualty numbers • Aristocratic generals – not meritocracy • Illiterate/poorly trained peasants • Uncoded commands-intercepted and read by enemies • Russian artillery controlled by upper class • Nicholas II leaves to lead troops– bad idea – while cat’s away… • Austro-Hungarians • Soldiers not that excited to fight for emperor • Common theme • Incompetent leaders • Annoyed/fatalistic soldiers • Corrupt/stupid politicians • In eastern Europe, most of the fighting was in Western Russia and in the Balkans. The result was as devastating there as on the Western front. • Russia’s early and successful offensive was stopped by Germany. Russian leadership under the hapless tsar Nicholas II, tactics, and weaponry were little match for the Germans, but a superior number of soldiers kept the tsar’s forces from capitulating to the Central Powers. • In northern Italy, the story was similar. Italian gains were quickly nullified by the Austrians. Support from England and France shored up weak Italian resistance, but not before hundreds of thousands were dead. • The brutal realities of the war plunged both Russia and Italy into social and political turmoil.

7. The War in Europe • The war was fought on two major fronts. In the West, the Germans fought the French and British in France; in the East, Germany and Austria-Hungary fought the Russians. • On the Western front, advancements in weaponry combined with the mass production techniques of the Industrial Revolution to create enormous casualties and defensive tactics, most infamously trench warfare. • After early gains, the Germans were stymied by the Allies. • Both sides settled into wholesale slaughter of their men. 1. Soldiers annoyance with civilians a. Leaders safe from harm b. Civilians overly patriotic, unrealistic about realities of war c. Inexhaustible supply of civilians to mobilize to troops 2. Governments take control, to avoid protests/labor strikes, companies taken over by state b. Newspapers censored – propaganda departments, enemy dehumanized 2. Weaknesses/defeats ignored – eventual defeat shocking 3. Civilian population becomes targets 4. Changes sped up a. Trade union chiefs given power - they can mobilize working class, but eventually labor begins protesting/uniting against war c. Shortages of food/fuel lead to mass protests d. Women get more power, capable of working in heavy industry – destroys domain notion 2. Better wages/experience/confidence sparked movement 3. Independence – clothes, smoking, unchaperoned – “new woman 4. Gained right to vote in Britain, Germany, and US

8. The War Outside Europe • The presence of the West in all world regions spread the conflict. • The British dominions, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand supported Britain by sending soldiers to many fronts, most notably in Africa in defense of the vital Suez Canal and the ill-fated assault at Gallipoli.(Allies wanted to create another front that they could control-failed) • Japan joined the Allied cause and attacked German holdings in the Pacific. • The United States, at first neutral, also entered the war on the Allied side. U.S. assistance in manpower and materiel turned the balance to the Allies. • On the seas, the principal combatants were Britain and Germany. • Except Austria-Hungary – all Europe had colonies , Used colonies for manpower, resources • Resources – food, natural resources, textiles – U-boats • Fighting spreads to Middle East, West/East Africa, China, only S. America not really involved • Britain’s navy cut off Germany from food, raw materials, controlled trans-Atlantic cable lines • Japan – allied with Britain 1902 • Excuse to kick Germany out of Shandong peninsula • Led to imperialistic ambitions later on • German islands taken became launching enters WWII • Germany’s support • Ottoman Empire – main support – Young Turks enter in 1915 • Defeated in campaign against Russia – blamed on Armenians, some Armenians supported Russians, others neutral, genocide kills one million (Large numbers were Jews) • US becomes global power • American businesses profited – food, raw materials, weapons, becomes world’s largest creditor • By 1918, #s forced Germany to launch offensive

9. Endgame: The Return of Offensive Warfare • Late in the war, the United States introduced hundreds of thousands of men into battle against the Germans, who had little with which to counter. • In desperation, Germany launched a final offensive on the Western front after knocking Russia out of the war. • Nearly a million German soldiers transferred from the Eastern Front, and new assault tactics and the deployment of storm troopers broke the 3 year long stalemate. • Just short of Paris the offensive slowed thanks to fatigue, new weapons like tanks, and fresh American soldiers. • When it failed, German commanders facing rebellion at home and on the battlefield, agreed to an armistice brokered by the United States. • The physical, economic, social, and psychological results of the war included the Great Depression and the rise of totalitarianism in the two decades that followed. Many Germans accepted the myth that Germany had been betrayed by socialist and Jewish politicians, whose alleged “stab in the back” would be become a rallying cry for Adolph Hitler and the Nazis’ in the 1920s • Early 1918, Germany on the roll • Million troops from Eastern front – Russia out of war • But…US soldiers, new weapons – tanks, casualties, exhaustion • Generals surrender – fear of army collapse + home rebellion • Generals blame new government • Must accept treaty rules of British and French • Propaganda left German civilians shocked • Costs - Millions died in war • Millions more died of influenza after – thanks for sharing • Land and economies destroyed

10. Failed Peace – “A Peace to End All Peace” • A. Different perspectives • a. French –Georges Clemenceau • Punishment -Germany take all blame, pay reparations, shrink size of country • b. US – Woodrow Wilson • peace for everyone – optimist • 14 points • Self-determination – call for rights of people, League of Nations • c. Britain – David Lloyd George • If Germany weak, communist revolution possible • Peace of Paris – diktat – dictated peace – Germany has no say • Austro-Hungarian Empire broken up – Germanic Austria cut off • New nations get chunks of Germany • Problems • a. Russian Bolsheviks not invited • b. Wartime promises to Arabs ignored – divided up empires • c. China left on its own • d. Ho Chi Minh – Vietnamese leader ignored • e. US Congress vetoed – League of Nations • The Treaty of Versailles left its signers dissatisfied. • The English behind David Lloyd George and the French behind Georges Clemenceau pushed the Americans under President Woodrow Wilson, into an agreement that punished the Germans while establishing the League of Nations. • Wilson’s call for the rights of people to self-determination were dashed, except for white people like the Poles, not Arabs or Vietnamese. • Japan and Italy’s hoped-for gains were largely ignored. • Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire collapsed as political entities. • The new communist government in Russia was not allowed to participate in the peace conference. • Ultimately, the Treaty of Versailles failed to bring a lasting peace, for it angered the people of a defeated and humiliated Germany. Even the United States Congress voted down the critical clauses establishing a League of Nations

11. World War I and the Nationalist Assault on the European Colonial Order • Four years of war disrupted European colonial domination and encouraged nationalist movements that began before World War I. • To shore up power in the colonies, the British and French made promises of increased self-determination to local elites but then helped to build resentment of them by reneging on them after the war. • Subjugated peoples of colonies begin to question status • Europeans fighting each other • Industrialized to help out war effort – India becomes industrialized • Europeans ordered Africans/Asians to kill other Europeans • Colonial leaders went to battlefield – left void • Gave administrative responsibility to natives • Initially made promises from British/French – then reneged • Questioned racial superiority theory – wait, these guys are bright • Social/economic problems make it easier to motivate mass protests

12. India: The Makings of the Nationalist Challenge to the British Raj • The Indian nationalist movement set the pattern of challenge to colonial authorities in Asia and Africa. • Key themes emerged, such as leadership by Western-educated elites and charismatic figures and nonviolent forms of protest. • The Indian National Congress Party led its country’s move toward independence and governed through most of the early decades of the postcolonial era. • India subjugated longer than Africa • Due to size, importance – their efforts pioneer others efforts • Key themes in independence movements • charismatic leaders take message and spread to masses • reliance on nonviolent forms of protest • Indian National Congress Party • Began in 1885 as educated (many were lawyers) study clubs with consent from British – method of dialogue to prevent protest – little did they know • Ineffective at first because: • i. Focused on elite Indian issues • ii. Few if any full-time members • iii. Didn’t have support of the masses • iv. Members loyal to British • Gradually realized they were treated in racist manner • Gradually created common Indian identity • i. Tough to do since more diverse than all of European continent • ii. Amazing what having a common enemy/foreign ruler can do

13. Social Foundations of a Mass Movement • By the beginning of the twentieth century, resistance to over a hundred years of British rule mounted in India. • Charges of British racism and detrimental economic policy grew steadily. • The British countered that their policies provided efficient government, but nationalists replied the price paid was too high. • What issue would galvanize support? • Preferential treatment for British investors • Drain of Indian resources • Indian money spent for British wars or pay for British government • Infrastructure built using British manufactured goods • Only reinforced colonial dependency relationship • Decline in food production to make cash crops for Britain • i. Poverty increased under British rule • ii. British can’t help indebtedness and small landowner

14. The Rise of Militant Nationalism • Indian leaders, such as B. G. Tilak, demanded full and immediate independence and threatened violence. • His rhetoric appealed to many Hindus, but frightened others, especially moderate Hindus and Muslims. • Secret societies sprang up that promoted and carried out violence, but British crackdowns limited their effectiveness. • Tilak’s removal strengthened the hand of more moderate politicians who advocated a peaceful, constitutional approach to decolonization. • The timely political concession of the Morley-Minto reforms of 1909 provide educated Indians with expanded opportunities both to vote and serve on all-India legislative councils. • Religious based issues – aka cow – ignored by Muslims • Some believed Muslim perspective should be ignored – B.G. Tilak • i. Believed in restoration of Hindu traditions • ii. Lower wedding age, no women’s education, • Used Hindu festivals as political meetings • Tilak’smilitant Hinduism confined to Bombay region • i. Imprisoned by British when his violent writing found • ii. Exiled to Burma • Hindu communalist terrorists • Bengalis – secret terrorist societies • i. Get strong, tough, learn firearms and bombs • Bomb British buildings/officials/ sometimes expats • Essentially controlled by World War I • Issues calmed with government reforms • a. Morley-Minto reforms – 1909 – voting rights/Indian councils

15. The Emergence of Gandhi and the Spread of the Nationalist Struggle • After the war in 1918, moderate Indian politicians were frustrated by the British refusal to honor wartime promises to steadily move to self-government. Hopes were raised by the 1919 Montagu-Chelmsford reforms that placed much of the provincial administration under their control, but it was offset by the passage later in the year of the Rowlatt Act which put severe restrictions on Indian civil rights like freedom of the press. • Local protests followed, but Mohandas Gandhi emerged as a new leader who unified opposition into an all-India campaign. • Unlike Tilak, Gandhi appealed to both the masses and the Western-educated nationalist politicians. • His emphasis on nonviolent but persistent protest such as boycotts, strikes, noncooperation, and mass demonstrations, which he labeled collectively as satyagraha, weakened British control of India. • His political savvy and dogged determination made him a formidable opponent to British authorities who consistently underestimated his abilities and appeal. • Under his leadership, nationalist protest surged in India during the 1920s and 1930s. • India help during WWI • soldiers, bankers loaned money, sold British War Bonds – Gandhi • Eventually Indians became annoyed with situation • Wartime inflation hurts products, Products can’t be shipped – blockades • Laborers wages don’t go far – but bosses getting rich • British promised India eventual independence if they helped war effort • Mohandas Gandhi enters scene • Appealed to educated and the masses, moderates and radicals • i. Nonviolent but aggressive methods of protest • ii. Peaceful boycotts, strikes, noncooperation, mass demonstrations • Satyagraha – term given to his methods – truth force • Western-educated lawyer – understood strengths/weaknesses of Brits • Great negotiator • Hindu ascetic/guru • i. Appealed to masses – tradition of following mystic • ii. This appeal to masses made him important to nationalists

16. Egypt and the Rise of Nationalism in the Middle East • Egypt’s nationalist movement was unique in Afro-Asia because it preceded European domination. • Britain responded to Egyptian nationalist agitation against the Ottoman Empire with occupation. The decades following British conquest were dominated by strongman High Commissioner. • At the end of the nineteenth century, Arabic newspapers in Egypt promoted independence from both English and Turkish rule. The cause was taken up mainly by the sons of the effendi, or prosperous middle class. • By the early twentieth century, decades of ill will between the British and the population led to violence on both sides. The excessive British response to protests was shown by the 1906 Dinshawai incident, exemplifying the racial arrogance and undermining whatever support remained for British presence in Egypt. • In 1913, a constitution was granted. The outbreak of World War I saw a temporary diminution of hostilities in Egypt. • Nationalism already existed in Egypt and Turkey • i. Nationalist parties can’t unite • Dinshawiincident – showed tendency of Brits to overreact violently to signs of protest • While hunting pigeons, British accidentally shot wife of prayer leader • Riots ensue, shots fired, British hang four villagers and floggings • Became catalyst to unite groups – common enemy enough to put aside different • In 1913, Egypt granted constitution for wealthy classes to run • Messed up due to WWI, Brit gov’t had to take over control • But…precedent had been set

17. War and Nationalist Movements in the Middle East • After World War I resistance to European colonial domination spread to much of the rest of the Middle East. • A skilled military commander Mustafa Kemel or Ataturk emerged during the war years from the Turkish forces and drove back the Greek armies intent on colonizing the Turkish homeland. • A Turkish republic was formed on the basis of a Western model. • Hussein, the sheriff of Mecca, had used French and British promises to preserve Arab independence after the war in order to convince Arabs to rise up in support of the war against fellow Muslims. • Yet after the war, England and France divided the defeated Ottoman Empire’s Arab holdings into mandates. • In fact it appeared the British had promised Palestine to both the Jewish Zionists and the Arabs during the war. • In 1917 British foreign secretary Lord Balfour issued the Balfour Declaration giving Jewish people the hope of returning to their ancient Middle eastern lands of origin. • These moves were made in response to the persecution of Jews in eastern Europe in the last part of the 20th century, where vicious pogroms, or violent assaults were taking place. • Jewish intellectuals such as Leon Pinsker became convinced that assimilation, or even acceptance into Christian Europe was impossible, and they called for a return to the Holy Land. • Until late 1890’s most Jews opposed the Zionist effort because they enjoyed citizenship and extensive rights in Western Europe, but the persecution of a hapless army officer Alfred Dreyfus as described by Austrian journalist Theodor Herzel and subsequent exile to a penal colony on Devil’s Island turned attitudes. • Herzel and a number of other prominent western European Jews joined with those from eastern Europe to form the World Zionist Organization to promote Jewish migration and settlement in Palestine. • Jews quickly faced Arab nationalist resistance despite British attempts to limit migration. The Arabs also fought European occupation and went to war over the establishment of a League of Nations–approved Jewish homeland in Palestine. • These conflicting movements led to great tension in the Middle East.

18. War and Nationalist Movements in the Middle East (con’t) • Ottoman Empire destroyed by WWI • Greeks try to carve up Turkey, but Mustafa Kemal (Ataturk) – rallied forces • i. Leads to new Turkish republic nation in 1923 • Middle East – Brits/French promised independence • Instead they occupied region – Syria, Lebanon, Iraq • Hussein – sherif of Mecca looks stupid – sided with infidels against Tukish Muslims • Not very pleased with new mandate system – run by Brits/French • And then there’s Palestine…the big problem • British promised different things to both sides during WWI – just support us • Balfour Declaration • ii. Hussein-McMahon correspondence • iii. Churchill White Paper Zionist movement (Creating Jewish Homeland) pushing for decades for emigration to Palestine • Russian Pogroms – kicked out Jews • Diaspora – Jews wandering without a homeland for thousands of years • Jews can’t be assimilated into Christian nations – Lord Pinkser • Prior to 1890s, most Jews didn’t support creation of Jewish nation • Happy with their citizenship/civil rights • But…after Dreyfus Affair…French Jew blamed for being a spy • Journalist Theodor Herzl forms World Zionist Organization • Want Jewish nation – problem #s – must have emigration • Arabs feel betrayed > Brits pull back support > Jews feel betrayed • Arabs never mount formidable opposition – Jews highly organized • Set up pattern of foreign Arabs speaking for Palestinian Arabs • Palestinian Arabs should have been educated

19. Revolt in Egypt, 1919 • By the end of the World War I, Egypt was ripe for revolt. • Students and, significantly, women, led large demonstrations against colonial rule. • The emergence of the new Waf’d partyand its hard driving leader Sa’dZaghlul provided for unified action. • British withdrawal began in 1922. • Once in power, Egyptian leaders did little in the way of reform. • Gamal Abdel Nasser led a military coup in 1952, promising sweeping social and political change. • Egyptian peasants destroyed by war • Resources drained to feed soldiers protecting Suez Canal • Food shortages, starvation, confiscation of animals • Insulted by Versailles ignoring of delegation –Waf’d • Riots began across nation, begun by students • Women joined – some western educated wearing veils • Eventually Britain regains control, but precedent set • Britain pulled out between 1922 and 1936 • But…could still come back if foreign power threatened – Suez Canal • Egypt spent next 30 years spiraling into chaos • Wealthy classes only improved their lives, plunged nation into despair

20. The Beginnings of the Liberation Struggle in Africa • As in India and the Arab Middle East, most Western-educated Africans supported their British and French occupiers in World War I, most significantly by supplying soldiers induced by promises of nationhood after the war. • When those promises went unfulfilled, protests ensued. Charismatic African American political figures such as Marcus Garvey and W.E.B. DuBois had a major impact on emerging African nationalistic leaders. Attempts to encourage pan-African unity alarmed the European powers and encouraged anticolonial sentiments. • By the 1920s, pan-Africanism faded, replaced by the brand of nationalism seen in other colonies. In French west Africa, a new negritude literary movement did much to combat the racial stereotyping that had so long held the Africans in psychological bondage to the Europeans. Writers such as Senegalese poet Leopold Sedar Senghor, Leon Damas from French Guiana, and West Indian AimeCesaire celebrated the beauty of black skin and the African physique. They argued the Africans had built societies where woman were freerer, old people were better cared for, and attitudes towards sex were healthier than they had ever been in the so-called civilized West. • Although efforts were made to organize political independence movements, the great age of African independence came after World War II. • Educated Africans initially loyal to Brits/French • War changed all that • Rebellions due to forced recruitment/labor • Starvation to feed soldiers • Merchants suffer from shipping shortages • Britain doesn’t come through on all promises after war – jobs and public honors • Attempts to create pan-African Movement • Started by African Americans or West Indies • At least pushed anti-colonial spirit • Negritude literary movement – life actually better before – women, ole people, sex • Political organizations created – though with little impact • Some nations gave representative gov’t • Newspapers used to win support

21. Global Connections: World War and Global upheavals • World War I set many templates for the twentieth century. • The decline of European hegemony, the emergence of the United States and Japan on the global stage, and communist rule in Russia were results of the war. • The war also resulted in nationalist surges in European colonies and increased political power of labor organizations and women. • WWI hurt Europe’s economy, helped rival, growing powers • Wartime hardships increased already existing tensions • Labor parties get more powerful • New place for women and scientific theories – challenge conservative ideas • Some nations increase empires, but…nationalist sentiment also increases • White men superior argument losing its value • Russia, US and Japan all had vested interest in bringing down Western Europe – but for different reasons