FRENCH REVOLUTION AND THE NAPOLEONIC ERA, 1789-1815

1. FRENCHREVOLUTION AND THE NAPOLEONIC ERA, 1789-1815 NAISBITT/FREILER

2. EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY REVOLUTIONS • In the second half of the 18th century, two separate revolutions toppled regimes on both sides of the Atlantic • First, in the American Revolution (1775-1783), the 13 British colonies on the Atlantic seaboard secured their independence • While the American Revolution challenged British hegemony, France appeared stable – so secure that they were able to lend a hand to the colonists

3. LOUIS XVI AS SAVIOR • After the American Revolution, King Louis XVI was portrayed as the “liberator” of America • The American Revolution was popular in France and supporters like Marquis de Lafayette provided critical military assistance • Who could have known that the king commemorated as a liberator would be guillotined as a traitor in 1793

4. OVERVIEW • The French Revolution began six years after the American Revolution ended and lasted for a decade • The French revolutionaries shared many of the values of their American counterparts • French society in the 50 years preceding 1789 set the stage for revolution • The revolution ended with Napoleon coming to power and serving as both the heir of the Revolution and its destroyer

5. BUMPY ROAD TO REVOLUTION • The overthrow of the absolutist monarchy brought with it new social theories, new symbols, and new behavior • The instability during the transition brought with it the terror of repression • In the search for a new order, competing political forms followed one after the other in rapid succession • Constitutional monarchy, republic, oligarchy, and finally dictatorship

6. FRANCE:1789-1815

7. MODERN POLITICS ESTABLISHED • The impact of the French Revolution was profound • The triumphs and contradictions of the revolution marked the end of the Old Regime and the beginning of modern history • Politics would never be the same again

8. THE CAUSES • Throughout the 18th century the French government was in financial crisis • Louis XV ruled as an absolute monarch; but he lacked funds • He borrowed staggering amounts of money and the interest alone was quite expensive • The defeat in 1763 in the Seven Years’ War did not help matters as the king contemplated further taxation Louis XV

10. THE ISSUE OF TAXES • Raising taxes required the support of the aristocracy • The magistrates of Parliament (nobles) rejected a proportional tax to be imposed on nobles and commoners alike after the Seven Years’ War • They argued that this was unjust because they were traditionally exempt from taxation by their status as nobles They want to tax us? I think not!

11. KING VS. ELITE • By challenging the king, the parlements became a battleground between the elite, who claimed they represented the country, and the king, who said the nation was himself • The king tried in vain to rely on his agents in the provinces, the intendants, to provide the resources needed to run the country There were 13 sovereign courts (parlements) in France with a seat in Paris

12. FINANCIAL CRISIS • The financial crisis provided the notables—the aristocrats and bourgeoisie—with the basis for asserting their political power • Louis XV left a debt that swamped his grandson and successor Louis XVI • This tension between a growing debt and the rising power of the nobles and bourgeoisie came to characterize the Old Regime The Three Estates

13. LOUIS XVI BECOMES KING • When Louis XVI assumed the French throne in 1774, he was only 20 years old • The nation was mired in debt and his support of the colonies in the American Revolution only added to the debt • When his attempts at fiscal reform failed, he resorted to an unusual step – the convening of the Estates-General • The last meeting was held in 1614

14. THE ESTATES-GENERAL • Historically, the Estates-General was the representative body of the three “estates” or social groups of France • The clergy (First Estate), the nobility (Second Estate), and commoners (Third Estate) • The Third Estate was composed of all those who had no special privileges – 25 million French people The seeds of revolution were sown in the 1789 meeting of the Estates-General

15. GOALS OF THE MEETING • The King: Wanted the clergy, nobles and commoners to solve his fiscal problems • The Nobles: Wanted to preserve and increase their political power • The Commoners: Wanted to express their opinions and redress their issues

16. THIRD ESTATE • There was real hope among the Third Estaters • They believed change could occur– taxes lowered, state bureaucracy reformed • Commoners gathered in cafés to drink and debate • People now had a forum – the Estates-General – and a focus -- taxation • Absolutism was in trouble, though Louis XVI did not know it Circa, 1789

17. CAHIERS DE DOLÉANCES • In scheduled meetings, members of all three estates drew up lists of their problems, or grievances • These grievance lists – known as cahiers de doléances – were then carried to Versailles • The lists were important because they made clear the similarity of grievances throughout France and the lists indicated a common belief in political reform New concerns such as liberty, equality, and the rule of law were voiced by the people

18. THE ESTATES-GENERAL MEETING CONVENES • The elected deputies arrived at Versailles in May, 1789 • The 1,248 deputies brought with them the grievances of their estates • The tone was set when members of the Third Estate rejected the traditional kneeling at the king’s entrance – after all, they had come to Versailles to make a constitution

19. VOTING BY ORDER OR BY HEAD? • The issue of how the voting was to proceed created tension at the meeting • Traditionally, each of the three orders was equally weighted • This favored the nobility who controlled the first two estates • The Third Estate was adamant in its demand for vote by head • The privileged orders were equally determined in insisting on vote by order • Paralysis set in, as days dragged into weeks

20. “WHAT IS THE THIRD ESTATE?” • Abbe Emmanuel Joseph Sièyes, a member of the clergy, emerged as a leader of the Third Estate • His pamphlet, “What is the Third Estate?” argued that the Third Estate – the bourgeoisie, the peasantry, and the urban and rural workers – produced all of the nation’s wealth • Therefore, the Third Estate was the French nation and should preside as such Cartoon entitled, “The Third Estate Rises”

21. THIRD ESTATE BREAKS OFF • Under the influence of Sièyes and other reform- minded delegates, the Third Estate decided to proceed with their own meetings • On June 17, 1789, joined by some sympathetic clergy and nobles, the Third Estate changed its name to the National Assembly as an assertion of its true representation of the French Nation Etching, “I’m The Third Estate”, 1789

22. TENNIS COURT OATH Three days later, June 20, 1789, the newly formed National Assembly found themselves locked out of their meeting room by the king. Outraged by the insult, they moved to a nearby indoor tennis court, where they vowed to write a constitution. The event, known as the Tennis Court Oath, marked the end of the absolute monarchy and the beginning of representative government. The revolution had begun.

23. THE IMPORTANCE OF THE PUBLIC • The people of Paris had suffered through a harsh winter and spring under the burdens of high prices (especially bread), limited supplies, and increased taxes • These suffering Parisians would play a key role in pushing the revolution forward whenever it appeared to stall Time and time again the French public would propel the revolution forward

24. THE KING STIRS • The king emerged to meet with reps from all three estates and propose reforms, including a constitutional monarchy • However, he refused to recognize the National Assembly as a legitimate body • He ordered troops to Versailles and Paris as crowds gathered • The king and his bride, Marie Antoinette, were badly out of touch

25. THE STORMING OF THE BASTILLE • On July 14, 1789, irate citizens of Paris stormed the Bastille, a royal armory and prison • This event became the great symbol of the overthrow of tyranny and the oppression of the Old Regime • Parisians were following the lead of their deputies in Versailles as they formed the National Guard

26. THE TRICOLOR FLAG IS ADOPTED • The people who stormed the Bastille were not the desperate poor or urban criminals, rather they were petty tradesmen, shopkeepers, and wage earners • The Marquis de Lafayette, a noble who helped America defeat Britain, helped organize the National Guard • Under his direction, the militia adopted the tricolor flag – combining the red and blue colors of Paris with the white of the Bourbon royal family La Fayette, 1757-1834

27. URBAN UPRISINGS • The events in Paris set off similar uprisings in cities and towns throughout France • National guards in provincial cities modeled themselves after the Parisian militia • Government officials fled their posts and abandoned their responsibilities • Commoners stood ready to fill the power vacuum Government officials fled their posts

28. THE GREAT (PEASANT) FEAR • Beset by an array of taxes and dues, poor harvests, and obligations owed the crown and nobility, the rural poor of France viewed the goings on in Paris as an aristocratic plot that further threatened their existence • To make matters worse, hordes of vagabonds, often traveling in groups, disrupted the countryside. Peasants were sure these vagabonds were paid by local aristocracy to further persecute a peasantry already stretched to the breaking point Rumors swept through the countryside creating fear

29. THE PEASANT REVOLT • As rumors of a great conspiracy spread throughout rural France, fear spawned revolt • Peasants banded together and marched to residences of local nobles with a single mission – destroy all legal documents • They drove out the lords and in some cases set fire to their homes • The peasants had taken matters into their own hands Late July, 1789

30. NATIONAL ASSEMBLY REACTS • Members of the National Assembly were concerned about the rural violence and sought to maintain peace • In a dramatic meeting on August 4, 1789, the Assembly agreed to abolish the principle of privilege The Decree Abolishing the Feudal System

31. WOMEN ON THE MARCH • Women participated with men in both urban and rural revolutionary action • Women were responsible for one of the most dramatic events of the early years of the revolution – the October, 1789 march on Versailles • They forced the king and the royal family to leave Versailles for Paris to deal in person with the problems of bread supply, high prices, and starvation

32. OCTOBER 5, 1789 • On the morning of October 5, 1789, 6,000 Parisian women marched out of the city and toward Versailles • The women were armed with pikes and were prepared to use them • Several members of the royal guard were killed and their heads put on pikes • A shocked Louis XVI agreed to return with the crowd to Paris • Louis XVI was now captive to the revolution "Memorable Day at Versailles, October 5, 1789." This painting illustrates the "glorious modern Amazons" returning from "their victory" accompanied by National Guardsmen. Observers shout "long live the Nation."

33. DECLARATION OF THE RIGHTS OF MAN AND CITIZEN • Revolutionary deputies declared their ideals in a document released in late August, 1789 • The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen embodied many of the Enlightenment’s political ideas • Locke and Montesquieu were especially represented as the document made clear that “men are born and remain free and equal in rights”

34. CONSTITUTION OF 1791 • The delegates next set about creating a constitution based on the principles of the Declaration • The result was the Constitution of 1791 – a statement of faith in a progressive constitutional monarchy • A king accountable to a parliament • The people were sovereign • Property was sacred • Voting rights were based on land ownership Overall, it was a moderate document that created a constitutional monarch and privileged the wealthy to a considerable degree

36. CIVIL LIBERTIES In the Constitution of 1791: • All titles of nobility were abolished • Civil liberties were extended to Protestants and Jews, who had been persecuted under the Old regime • Freedom of thought and worship were enumerated • The issue of slavery in the colonies was discussed and in 1794 it was outlawed (reinstated in 1802) A slave revolt in French colony of Saint Dominque (Haiti) in 1791 resulted in independence in 1804

37. WOMEN LEFT OUT • No references to women or their rights appeared in the constitution or the Declaration of Rights • Women played a key role in the revolution, yet were excluded from the spoils of their labor • Olympe de Gouges addressed the issue in her essay, Declaration of the Rights of Woman and Female Citizen modeled after the 1789 document

38. THE WORK OF CONSTITUTIONAL MONARCHY • The National or Constituent Assembly divided France into new administrative units – 83 departments • The government also promoted its own rituals as July 14, 1790 witnessed a huge celebration of the first anniversary of the storming of the Bastille – a new national holiday was born

39. DEALINGS WITH THE CHURCH • In February 1790, legislation dissolved all monasteries and convents (except for those providing aid or education); effectively putting the church under state control • Abbe Sièyes fiercely resisted the passage of this law • As the French church was stripped of its land, Pope Pius VI denounced the principles of the revolution • In July 1790, the government approved the Civil Constitution of the Clergy; priests now were paid agents of the state • An oath of loyalty to the state was required of all priests • A new arena for dissent was created Cartoon representation of theconfiscation of church lands

40. ENEMY OF THE STATE • The wedge driven between the Catholic Church and revolutionary France allowed a mass-based counterrevolution to emerge • Aristocrats, who had fled France and were in search of support for a counter-revolt, had found an ally Many priests refused to take the oath

41. KING FLEES • Late one night in June of 1791, Louis XVI, Marie Antoinette, and their children disguised themselves as commoners, crept out of their apartment in the Tuileries Palace, and fled France in a carriage • They got as far as Varennes, where they were captured by National guardsmen • Paris was shocked • The king had abandoned the revolution • Although he was not put to death for another 18 months, he was no more than a prisonerafter that Two versions of the king’s capture

42. PROBLEMS PLAGUE REVOLUTIONARY GOVERNMENT • Financial issues, inflation, and foreign war were serious issues that the faced the young government • The debt of the Old Regime was absorbed despite the fact that the revolutionary government could not sell titles or offices • Seizure of church lands did help • Also, treasury bonds in the form of assignats were issued to raise money (by 1790, these assignats were legal tender) A promotional poster for the new assignats

43. INFLATION INCREASES Eventually, assignatswere virtually worthless. La destruction des assignats Paris, 1796  • Originally backed by land confiscated from the church, the need for assignats soon meant the government printed more and more • Inflation resulted as French currency was rapidly devalued • Food prices climbed and throughout the winter and in the spring of 1791-1792, people rioted and demanded fixed prices Circulation value

44. FOREIGN WARS • Foreign war beginning in 1791 further challenged the stability of the revolutionary government • Some leaders thought it diverted attention from problems at home, others viewed war as a crusade to bring enlightened principles to oppressed people of Europe • The king and queen loved the idea of war – they saw it as their only hope for liberation France declared war on Austria in April, 1792

45. ENTERING A NEW PHASE • The first stage of the French Revolution (1789-1792) was based on liberty – the liberty to compete, to own, and the succeed • The second stage of the revolution (1792-1795) took equality as its rallying cry • The second phase was a popular movement led by the sans-culottes (working men and women of Paris who wore trousers and not the knee breeches of the privileged elite) Sans-culottes in their trousers

46. "Reply to the Impertinent Question: What is a Sans-Culotte?" (April 1793)He is someone who always goes on foot, who has no millions as you would all like to have, no chateaux. No valets to serve him, and who lives simply with his wife and children, if he has any, on a fourth or fifth story.He is useful, because he knows how to work in the field, to forge iron, to use a saw, to use a file, to roof a house, to make shoes, and to shed his last drop of blood for the safety of the Republic.And because he works, you are sure not to meet his person in the Café de Chartres, or in the gaming house where others conspire and game, nor at the National theatre . . . nor in the literary clubs. . . .In the evening he goes to his section, not powdered or perfumed, or smartly booted in the hope of catching the eye of the citizenesses in the galleries, but ready to support good proposals with all his might, and to crush those which come from the abominable faction of politicians.Finally, a sans-culottes always has his sabre sharp, to cut off the ears of all enemies of the Revolution; sometimes he even goes out with his pike, but at the first sound of the drum he is ready to leave for the Vendée, for the army of the Alps or to the army of the North. . . .[Source: Reprinted in Walter Markov and Albert Soboul, eds., Die Sansculotten von Paris, republished trans. by Clive Emsley in Merryn Williams, ed., Revolutions: 1755-1830 (Baltimore: Penguin, 1971), pp. 100-101.]

47. GOALS OF THE SANS-CULOTTES • The sans-culottes hated the privileged (les gros) who profited at the expense of the people • The sans-culottes wanted a decentralized government, with neighborhoods exerting control of local affairs • Their venom was such that this second phase took on a sense of vengeance an a demand for justice

48. STORMING THE PALACE • On August 10, 1792, the people of Paris stormed the Tuileries, chanting their demands for “equality” • Love and respect for the king had vanished as the sans-culottes vandalized his fine furnishings • The invaders saw themselves as patriots whose duty it was to eliminate the monarchy

49. POLITICAL FACTIONS EMERGE • Political factions characterized revolutionary politics from the start • The political terms “left” and “right” originated from seating in the assembly • In September 1792 the National Convention succeeded the Legislative Assembly • On September 21, the Convention abolished the monarchy and established a Republic the next day

50. LOUIS TRIED, SENTENCED, AND EXECUTED • In the fall of 1792, members of the Convention conducted the trial of Louis XVI for treason • He was found guilty and sentenced to death • He was executed by the guillotine in January 1793 Proclamation of the Convention to the French People (Jan., 23, 1793): “Citizens, the tyrant is no more. For a long time the cries of the victims, whom war and domestic dissensions have spread over France and Europe, loudly protested his existence. He has paid his penalty, and only acclamations for the Republic and for liberty have been heard from the people.”