Revolutions and Nationalism

1. Revolutions andNationalism

2. Revolutions of 1848 • Considered the watershed political event of the 19th century. • 1848 revolutions influenced by romanticism, nationalism, and liberalism, as well as economic dislocation and instability. • Only Britain and Russia avoided significant upheaval. • Neither liberals or conservatives could gain permanent upper hand. • Resulted in end of serfdom in Austria and Germany, universal male suffrage in France, parliaments established in German states (although controlled by princes & aristocrats), stimulated unification impulse in Prussia and Sardinia-Piedmont. • Last of liberal revolutions dating back to the French Revolution

3. Consequences • The revolutions failed to pull popular support from working classes. • Middle classes led the revolution, but as it turned more radical, they held back. • Were they were successful, old guard was left in place and they turned against them. • Nationalism divided more that united. • Some gains lasted (abolition of serfdom, etc.)

4. France 1848:The February Revolution • Working class and liberals unhappy with King Louis Philippe, esp. his minister Francois Guizot (who opposed electoral reform). • King dismisses Giuzot, but riots break out. • King forced to abdicate on Feb. 24. Francois Guizot

5. The Provisional Government • Second French Republic declared by Chamber of deputies. • Modernate republicans led by liberal Alphonse Lamartine (allied w/ bourgeoisie) • Socialists led by Louis Blanc • national workshops created by Blanc to provide work for the unemployed • Reforms: abolished slavery in the empire, 10 hr workday in Paris, abolished death penalty. • April elections for new Constituent Assembly resulted in conflict between moderate republicans (who won) and socialists

6. The June Days Revolt • Workers attempted to create a revolutionary republic after Blanc was dropped from assembly. • Results in “June Days” Revolution • Cause: gov’t closed national workshops • Marked beginning of class warfare in France • Workers sought war against poverty and redistribution of income. • Barricades put up in streets to oppose gov’t forces (Hugo’s Les Miserables based on this)

7. France 1848The Second Republic • General Louis Cavaignac: assumed dictatorial powers & crushed revolt (10,000 dead) • Victory for conservatives • Nov 1848 – constitution provided for elected president and one-house parliament • Election of 1848: Louis Napoleon Bonaparte (1803-1873) defeated Cavignac • 1852: Louis Napoleon consolidates power and becomes Emperor Napoleon III Louis Napoleon Bonaparte

8. Second French Republic • Constitution: Unicameral legislature (National Assembly); strong executive power; popularly-elected president of the Republic • President Louis Napoleon Bonaparte: seen by voters as a symbol of stability and greatness • Dedicated to law and order, opposed to socialism and radicalism, and favored the conservative classes—the Church, army, property-owners, and business. • Granted universal male suffrage • Falloux Law: Napoleon returned control of education to the Church (in return for support)

9. The Coup D’etat • The Assembly did not grant Louis Napoleon the allowance for a 2nd presidential term resulting in his plotting a coup. • On Dec 2, 1852, he had opponents arrested. • Through a series of plebiscites, he consolidated power with the help of the Bonapartists, becoming Emperor Napoleon III. Emperor Napoleon III.

10. The Second Empire • 1851-1860: Napoleon III’s control was direct and authoritarian. • Economic reforms resulted in a healthy economy • Infrastructure: canals, roads; Baron Haussmann redevelops Paris • Movement towards free trade, hurt economy • Banking: Credit Mobilier funded industrial and infrastructure growth • Foreign policy struggles resulted in strong criticism of Napoleon III • Algeria, Crimean War, Italian unification struggles, colonial possessions in Africa

11. The Second Empire • 1860-1870: Regime liberalized by a series of reforms. • Liberal reforms (done in part to divert attention from unsuccessful foreign policy) • Extended power of the Legislative Assembly • Returned control of secondary education to the government (instead of Catholic Church) • In response, Pope Pius IX issued Syllabus of Errors, condemning liberalism. • Permitted trade unions and right to strike • Eased censorship and granted amnesty to political prisoners

12. Revolution in Austria, 1848 • Habsburg empire was vulnerable to revolutionary challenge • Ethnic minorities sought nationalistic goals: Hungarians, Slavs, Czechs, Italians, Serbs, Croats, and others. (More non-Germans than Germans lived in the empire) • Austrian gov’t was reactionary; liberal institutions were non-existent. • Social reliance on serfdom doomed masses of people to a life w/o hope. • “February Revolution” in France sparked rebellion for liberal reforms.

13. Vienna, 1848 • March 13 – rioting breaks out in Vienna • Austrian empire collapsed; Metternich fled • Constituent assembly meets. • Serfdom (robot) abolished, revolution withers. • Revolutionary gov’t failed to govern effectively • Ferdinand I abdicates, Habsburgs restored royal absolutism under Franz Joseph (r. 1848-1916). Franz Joseph

14. Hungary, 1848 • Louis Kossuth (1802-1894) Hungarian (Magyar nationalist) leader demanded independence. • March laws provided for Hungarian independence. • Austrians invade, Hungarian armies drove within sight of Vienna. • Slavic minorities resisted Magyar invasion and Hungarian army withdrew • Austrian and Russian armies defeated Hungarian army. • Hungary would have to wait until 1866 for autonomy Louis Kossuth

15. Bohemia, 1848 • Prague Conference developed notion of Austroslavism: constitution and autonomy within Habsburg empire. • Pan-Slav Congress failed to unite Slavic peoples in the empire. • Austrian military ultimately attacked Prague and occupied Bohemia and crushed rebellion.

16. Preserving the Austrian Empire • Internal national divisions and military defeats at the hands of the Italians, Prussians and French caused continued disunity in the Austrian Empire. • Under nationalist Ferencz Deak, Hungary gained autonomy. • Franz Joseph became king of Hungary in the now Austro-Hungarian Empire.

17. Britain • The Chartists • Movement reached its height with the Kennington Common demonstration on April 10, 1848. • Could have been the prelude to revolution in Britain, but meeting was peaceful. • Leaders did not follow-up on the meeting and Chartist movement died. Kennington Common demonstration on April 10, 1848

18. Effects of Nationalism • Many aspects of European political and cultural life in the middle to late 18th century took on nationalist overtones. • The French Revolution had promoted and spread these ideas at the beginning of the century. • The desire for national self-determination combined with aspects of conservatism, liberalism and romanticism made nationalism a driving force in European affairs.

19. The Impact of Nationalism • In Central and Eastern Europe, nationalism was the most powerful ideology of the middle 19th century. • It would have a strong impact in Western Europe as well (balanced by liberalism). • Nationalism had cultural roots (language, history, symbolism) that gave a sense of identity. • It soon took on political aspects, being used by liberals and conservatives to promote their agendas.

20. Crimean War • Causes • Dispute between two groups of Christians over privileges in the Holy Land • 1852, Turks (who controlled the region) negotiated an agreement with France to provide enclaves in the Holy Land to Roman Catholic religious orders. • This arrangement seemed to jeopardize existing agreements which provided access to Greek Orthodox religious orders (that Russia favored)

21. Crimean War • Czar Nicholas I ordered Russian troops to occupy several provinces on the Danube (excuse for Russian expansion) • Russia would withdraw once Turks had guaranteed rights for Orthodox Christians • Turks declared war on Russia in 1853, when Nicholas refused to withdraw. • 1854, Britain & France declared war against Russia, protecting their interests. • 1855, Piedmont joined in the war against Russia.

22. Crimean War • Most of the war fought on the Crimean peninsula in the Black Sea. • War was reported on widely in newspapers. • Gained “nationalist” stature at home due to reporting and poems like “Charge of the Light Brigade” by Alfred Lord Tennyson • Florence Nightingale: famous for superb nursing and improved medical treatment (more men died of disease than combat) Battle of Balaklava

23. Peace Settlement • Deadlock in war broken with the taking of Sevastopol. • Peace of Paris: Russia emerged as the big loser in the conflict • Russia no longer had control of maritime trade on the Danube, had to recognize Turkish control of the mouth of the Danube, and renounced claims to Moldavia and Walachia • Russia renounced role of protector of the Greek Orthodox residents of the Ottoman Empire. • Agreed to return all occupied territories to the Ottoman Empire.

24. Italy, 1848 • Italian nationalists and liberals seek to end foreign domination of Italy • Milan, Lombardy and Venetia seek expel Austrian rulers • Bourbon rulers in Kingdom of Two Sicilies and House of Savoy in Sardinia-Piedmont grant liberal constitutions. • Sardinia-Piedmont declared war on Austria. • Beginning in May, revolutions suppressed.

25. Italy, 1848 • Giuseppe Mazzini established Roman Republic in 1849 protected by Giuseppe Garibaldi • Pope Pius IX forced to flee • Austrian General Radetsky crushes Sardinia-Piedmont; regains Lombardy and Venetia. • French troops take back Papal States. • Victor Emmanuel II takes throne in Sardinia-Piedmont. Giuseppe Mazzini

26. Italy, 1848 • Causes for failure: • Rural people did not support revolutions, focused mainly on urban middle classes. • Revolutionaries not united, fear of radicals among moderates leads to collapse. • Lack of leadership and administrative experience among revolutionaries. Giuseppe Garibaldi

27. Divided Italy • Following the Revolution of 1848, the Risorgimento seemed a distant dream. • Italy remained divided into three main parts: • Kingdom of the Two Sicilies – ruled by Bourbon monarch. • Pope ruled the Papal States. • In the North, Sardinia-Piedmont was ruled by the House of Savoy; Tuscany, Modena and Parma were dominated by Austria while Venice and Lombardy were part of the Austria Empire.

28. Count Camillo Cavour (1810-1861) • Born of nobility, he became a liberal early in his career. • In 1848, he was elected to the new Piedmontese Parliament and rose through the ranks. • King Victor Emmanuel II (r. 1849-1878) appointed him premier in 1852.

29. Count Camillo Cavour • Cavour quickly instituted a program of liberal reforms, hoping to discredit Austrian tyranny and creating a united North Italian state. • He reformed the currency and finance systems. • Balanced the state budget. • He modernized railroads and factories. • He established banks.

30. Piedmont – Austrian War • Cavour sought alliance with France to help deal with Austria. • Piedmont sends troops to the Crimea. • Napoleon III agrees to deal with Cavour. • Provides French troops to fight against Austria. • Piedmont would gain Lombardy and Venetia. • France would gain Savoy and Nice. • Cavour provokes Austria into war in April 1859.

31. Piedmont – Austrian War • Austria attacked, but were turned back by the Piedmontese and the French at the Battles of Magenta and Solferino. • Napoleon III made a separate peace with Austria (Peace of Villafranca), giving Lombardy to Piedmont but retaining Venice. • Cavour resigned in disgust, but returned in 1860 when revolutionary assemblies across northern Italy moved to join with Piedmont.

32. Revolution in Southern Italy • Revolution broke out in Southern Italy in 1860 against Bourbon Francis II. • Guiseppe Garibaldi sailed south with 1000 Red Shirts to Sicily to support the revolt, taking Palermo. • In August, they crossed to the Italian mainland, Francis II fled. • On Sept. 7, Garibaldi took Naples.

33. The Kingdom of Italy • Cavour then sent troops to take control of the Papal States before Garibaldi moved against Rome. • Garibaldi allowed the annexation of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. • On March 17, 1861 an Italian parliament proclaimed the Kingdom of Italy with Victor Emmanuel II as king. • Wars between Prussia and Austria and France allowed Venetia and Rome to be incorporated into Italy by 1870.

35. The German States, 1848 • Revolutions inspired by 1848 revolutions in France • Liberals demanded constitutional government and a union or federation of German states. • Frederick William IV rejected liberal constitution; imposed conservative one that guaranteed royal control of gov’t (lasted until 1918). Frederick William IV

36. Frankfurt Parliament • Liberal, romantic, & nationalist leaders called for elections to a constituent assembly, from all states in the German Bund, for the purpose of unifying the German states. • Sought war with Denmark to annex Schleswig & Holstein; Prussia declared war on Denmark • Presented constitution for a united German federation. • Selected Prussian King Frederick William IV as emperor; he declined claiming “divine right of kings”

37. Collapse of the Revolution • Failure of Prussia and Austria to support unification movement resulted in its collapsed • Frederick William’s attempt to unify Germany ended in failure • Austria demanded Prussian allegiance to the Bund (that Austria dominated) • “Humiliation of Olmutz”: Prussia dropped plan to unify Germany, leaving Austria as dominant German state in the Bund. • Prussia would seek revenge in 1866 (Austro-Prussian War)

38. Divided Germany • After 1848, liberal nationalists were in a weak position politically. • The German Confederation was reestablished as a loose union of 39 states (including the powerful Prussia and Austria). • The union was dominated by Austria, which held the presidency.

39. Otto von Bismarck (1815-1898) • Bismarck was born on Prussian Junker aristocracy. • Worked unhappily in civil service and became a farmer. • Elected to the Landtag (Prussian Parliament) in 1847. • Here he would begin his practice of “realpolitik”

40. Otto von Bismarck • In 1852, he became Prussia’s rep. at the Confederation (later he became ambassador to Russia and France). • Wilhelm I (r. 1861-1888) named him minister-president to push forward expansion of the military. • Despite liberal opposition, he raised taxes to do so, claiming change would come through “blood and iron.” Wilhelm I

41. The Schleswig-Holstein Affair • 1863 annexation by Denmark infuriated German nationalists. • Prussia and Austria allied to defeat Demark in 1864. • The Convention of Gastein provided for joint Austrian-Prussian rule of the duchies. • Bismarck began making deals with France, Italy and Russia for neutrality in dealing with Austria.

42. The Seven Weeks War • In 1866, Prussia accused Austria of violating the Convention of Gastein. • In June, they went to war. • Austrians were soundly defeated at the Battle of Königgrätz (Sadowa) on July 3. • In the Treaty of Prague, Prussia gained several states in northern Germany, the German Conf. dissolved and Italy received Venetia.

43. The North German Confederation • Prussia established the North German Confederation in 1867. • South German states of Bavaria, Wurttemburg, Baden, and Hesse remained independent. • Bismarck wanted to absorb them, but differences (south was Catholic and liberal) and French opposition made this difficult.

44. The Hohenzollern Candidacy • An 1868 Spanish revolution resulted in the nomination of Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern as king. • The French protested and the Prussians acquiesced. • At Elms, French Count Benedetti demanded further Prussian concessions, Wilhelm I refused. • Bismarck had notes of the meeting (known as the Elms Dispatch) released. Napoleon III was enraged and declared war on July 19, 1870. • The South German states allied with Prussia.

45. The Franco-Prussian War • The German armies quickly mobilized and invaded France. • On Sept. 2, the Napoleon III was captured and a large part of the French Army surrendered at Sedan. • In Paris, rebels proclaimed the Third French Republic and continued the war. • On May 10, the Treaty of Frankfurt ended the war. • Germany got the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine and 5 billion francs. • The French greatly resented their defeat.

46. TheGerman Reich • During the war negotiations continued in Germany. • As a result, on Jan. 18, 1871 Wilhelm I was proclaimed Kaiser before an assembly of German princes in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles. • The unification of Germany was complete, Bismarck became Chancellor.

48. Politics and Culture in The Second Reich • Bismarck, fearing internal opposition to conservative rule, moved against enemies: Catholics and Socialists. • Catholics – with the Kulturkampf program, attempted to take control of church functions away; this failed. • Socialists – the Social Democratic Party of Ferdinand Lassalle was forced underground in public life, but continued to gain in Reichstag elections.

49. Lessons and Impact • Liberal nationalists had failed to unify Germany and Italy from below in 1848 . • Where they failed, conservative nationalists were able to succeed from above in the 1860s. • The unification of Germany and Italy changed the balance of power established at the Congress of Vienna (1815) at the expense of Austria and France. • Immediately, Germany became the most powerful nation on the European continent.

50. Reform in Russia • After defeat in the Crimean War, Tsar Alexander II abolished serfdom in 1861. • Mir (village communes) grew in importance for establishing farming communities for former serfs. • Zemstvos (district councils) were created in 1864 to increase local control. • Revolt in Poland in 1863 and the assassination of Alexander II in 1881 kept the government in tight control.