Economic Restructuring and Gender Subordination

1. By: Helen L. Safa Presented by: Rebecca Welsch Economic Restructuring and Gender Subordination

2. Economic Growth 1950-1980 • Total production increased 5 times • Per capita production doubled • Manufacturing output increased 6 times • Population more than doubled • Moved to urban areas • Decline in agricultural employment • Internal migration: women and young adults • Decline in fertility, mortality and infant mortality • Increase in life expectancy– over 60 years old • Household size decreased • Women headed households increased 20% • Higher education and employment levels increased for women

3. Causes of Economic Crisis 1980s • Causes of Crisis • Rising prices of imports • Rise in interest rates on foreign debt • US$410 billion in 1987 • Decline quantity and price of exports • Specifically oil, agricultural products and minerals • Outcomes of Crisis • Poverty increase • Unemployment rate increased by 48% • Real wages declined by 12-18% • Countries forced to implement structural adjustment programs

4. Structural Adjustment Programs • Designed by International Monetary Fund (IMF) and World Bank • Cut government expenditures • Improve trade balance • Reduce foreign debt • Issues • More hardship for the poor • Devaluate currency • Increase in inflation and cost of living • Eliminate government subsidies • Cuts in government expenditures • Freeze on real wages

5. Economic Crisis and Women • Women join the workforce • Help with rising cost of living • Make up for men’s decreased wages • Women in labor force went from 32% in 1980 to 38% in 1988 • Demands for women for export-led industries • “The increased economic importance of women, coupled with the rise of female-headed household, is challenging the myth of the man as the principal breadwinner in Latin American and Caribbean households” • Two-wage-earner family

6. Dominican Republic and Puerto Rico • Export-led industrialization policies • Limits self-sustaining growth • Women are replacing men • Dominican Republic: • 135,000 workers in 385 firms of the free-trade zones • Leading exports in Caribbean Basic Initiative • Lowest cost of labor in Caribbean

7. Cuba • Socialist economy • State is in control of most production • Focus on sugar exports • Import-substitution industrialization • Full male employment • Economic crisis in 1990 • Trade with other socialist countries declined greatly • Decline in male breadwinners—even with full male employment • Women are not replacing men in the workforce

8. Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico and Cuba • Contribution to household budget • Weakened male authority in house • Challenge the myth of male breadwinner in the home • Supplementary wage earners: working women who still depend primarily on male’s earnings • Poorly paid, unstable jobs

9. 4 Fundamental Factors for Women’s Wages • State policy • Access to resources • Household structure • Gender ideology

10. State Policy: Dominican Republic and Puerto Rico • State’s principal role “create a favorable climate for foreign investment through investment incentive and the control of wages and labor” • Export manufacturing firms are multinational (not domestic producers) • Workers typically get minimum wage– if quota met

11. State Policy Continued: Dominican Republic and Puerto Rico • Labor Control • Dominican Republic: prohibit unions • Puerto Rico: co-optation of labor • Both: weak labor movements, making workers more vulnerable • Structural adjustment • More unemployment • Lower real wages

12. State Policy Continued: Dominican Republic and Puerto Rico • Dominican Republic: higher unemployment for women • Women in labor force: 9.3% in 1960, 38% in 1991 • Puerto Rico: higher unemployment for men • Woman’s salary is at least 40% of total house income • Women are major economic contributors

13. State Policy: Cuba • Actively incorporate women in labor • More educational opportunities • Support services • Day care centers, laundries, transportation to workplaces, shopping plans • Puestospreferentes (positions where women have preference): affirmative-action plan • Family Code: encourage couples to share household responsibilities • Women labor force increase from 15.9% in 1970 to 34.8% in 1990

14. Access to Resources • Influence wages • Working conditions • Provide social services • Redistribute income

15. Access to Resources: Dominican Republic and Puerto Rico • Capitalist: depend on private sectors • Nearly all production workers are women, management is men • Paternalistic setting

16. Access to Resources: Dominican Republic • Worse wages and working conditions in export manufacturing plants • Workers quit instead of organizing • Unions are recently legal • Women receive little help from government • More women hired for exporting because they are cheaper • Men unable to find jobs • Men not considered economic provider

17. Access to Resources: Puerto Rico • Unionized plants • International Ladies’ Garment Workers’ Union (ILGWU) does little to defend workers • Union workers dropped 20% in 1970 to 6% in 1988 • More dependence on transfer payments • Reduce women’s dependence on male’s wage • Increase woman’s dependence on state

18. Access to Resources: Cuba • State power is stronger than capitalist • State employs most citizens • Women guaranteed: • Equal pay for equal work • Maternity benefits • Paid vacations • Support services • Occupational segregation • Women in social services sectors

19. Access to Resources: Cuba Continued • 1976: demand increased productivity, decrease costs • More occupational segregation • Women kept in inferior jobs: defending male as bread winner

20. Household Economy: Dominican Republic and Puerto Rico • Women have more authority in family because of their income • Women have a base to resist male dominance • More equal relationships

21. Household Economy: Dominican Republic • Dominican Republic: 80% of women still see husband as the head of the household • Young children and more of them • Most critical stage economically • Women on the job • Less protection • No transfer payments • Afraid to challenge male dominance

22. Household Economy: Cuba • Housing shortages • Double up in homes: 41% have at least 3 generations in 1 house • More common among female head of households • Extended families have higher incomes • More people to contribute • Teenage pregnancies contribute to marital instability

23. Household Economy • Women head of household • Typically younger, separated at least once • Exception: Puerto Rico • Reluctant to remarry • Job is a reason to remain single • Generally poorer due to less wage earners in home • Puerto Rico: kinships • Dominican Republic: leave children with families in rural area

24. Household Economy • Economic support and authority are connected • Single mothers do not want support from dad • Over ½ of married employed Cuban women make decisions with husband • Men’s household responsibilities have changed little • Traditional gender ideology • Women are breadwinners while continuing domestic roles • Family survival shifted from men to women • Challenges myth of male breadwinner

25. Gender Ideology • Traditional: Productive/reproductive roles • Public/Private split • Spanish Casa/calle distinction • Not followed by poor and subordinated ethnic groups • Breaking of traditional gender ideology • Women working • Rising divorce rates • Teenage pregnancies

26. Is it just these countries? • Standing says “global feminization” goes farther than the Caribbean area • International competition increasing • Growth of export manufacturing • Labor deregulation • Structural adjustment • Benefits industrial countries (U.S.) • Relocate production for money • Weakens labor but strengthens capital

27. Are the spheres eroding? NO • Lack of change in household chores • Paid job is considered part of domestic role • Women do not recognize themselves as breadwinners YES • Women more visible in the public sphere • Marital instability • Women head of households The male breadwinner myth is still considered intact because of the patriarchic system that is embedded in the workplace and the state– which profits from women’s subordination MAYBE Women still subordinated Occupational segregation replaced home confinement