Presentation Transcript

1. The English Civil War (1642-45)
2. Few people on either side wanted civil war. However, the issues involved were so important and the differences between the two sides so great that each party felt itself forced into war. Although both sides had support from all classes, one can generalize about where each side got its support.
3. Few people on either side wanted civil war. However, the issues involved were so important and the differences between the two sides so great that each party felt itself forced into war. Although both sides had support from all classes, one can generalize about where each side got its support. The king's centers of power were in the more agricultural regions of the North and West. His main supporters tended to be the upper nobles, known as peers, from the House of Lords.In the war they were referred to as Cavaliers since the peers mainly fought as cavalry.
4. Parliament's support came mainly from the gentry concentrated in the towns and ports in southeastern England. They were known as Roundheads for their short haircuts, as opposed to the long hair of the Cavaliers. (In fact, many parliamentary leaders, being from the upper classes, kept their hair long.)
5. Both sides also looked outside of England for help.
6. Both sides also looked outside of England for help. The king hoped for support from the Catholic Irish, while Parliament was allied to the Scots. Since Parliament controlled the ports and the navy, the king was largely cut off from his Irish allies. Meanwhile, the Scots, being right next to England could just march in and provide very effective aid to Parliament.
7. Trained bands. One of the myths of the English Civil War was that neither side knew how to fight well at its start. However, along with large numbers of Scottish and Irish veterans from the Thirty Years War, there were the “trained bands” of militia that the king had required to train regularly. While they weren’t hardened veterans, they weren’t totally raw recruits either, and they adapted to warfare fairly quickly.
8. Despite inferior manpower and resources, the king's forces did have superior cavalry. Prince Rupert of the Rhine, Charles’ nephew & the Cavaliers’ most brilliant cavalry commander was the son of James I’s daughter Elizabeth and the ill-fated Frederick of the Palatinate whose bid for the throne of Bohemia had started the Thirty Years War.
9. Despite inferior manpower and resources, the king's forces did have superior cavalry. Prince Rupert of the Rhine, Charles’ nephew & the Cavaliers’ most brilliant cavalry commander was the son of James I’sdaughter, Elizabeth, and the ill-fated Frederick of the Palatinate whose bid for the throne of Bohemia had started the Thirty Years War. He had spent much of his life in a Hapsburg prison where he studied cavalry tactics. He was only 22 when he assumed command of his uncle’s cavalry.
10. Despite inferior manpower and resources, the king's forces did have superior cavalry. Prince Rupert of the Rhine, Charles’ nephew & the Cavaliers’ most brilliant cavalry commander was the son of James I’s daughter Elizabeth and the ill-fated Frederick of the Palatinate whose bid for the throne of Bohemia had started the Thirty Years War. He had spent much of his life in a Hapsburg prison where he studied cavalry tactics. He was only 22 when he assumed command of his uncle’s cavalry. Rupert dressed flamboyantly and made enemies with his tactlessness. He also terrorized the English countryside with his raids, earning him the title “England’s wolf with eagle’s claws”. Outside London and a few other towns, little was safe fromhim.
11. Rupert had a pet poodle, Boy, who danced to the following tune & then lifted his leg to urinate: “Who name but Charles he comes aloft for him And lifts his malignant leg for Pym.”* *John Pym was a Parliamentary leader opposed to the king.
12. Rupert had a pet poodle, Boy, who danced to the following tune & then lift his leg to urinate: “Who name but Charles he comes aloft for him And lifts his malignant leg for Pym.”* *John Pym was a Parliamentary leader opposed to the king.
13. Despite his prissy little dog, Prince Rupert was one of the best cavalry leaders of the war, forging the cavaliers into an excellent fighting force that charged as shock cavalry in the manner that the Swedes had learned from Polish hussars in Eastern Europe.
14. At Edgehill, the first major battle of the war in 1642,there were about 14,000 men on each side, with the cavalry on the flanks where they could best maneuver. Cavalry Infantry Infantry Infantry Cavalry Cavalry Infantry Infantry Infantry Cavalry
15. At Edgehill, the first major battle of the war in 1642,there were about 14,000 men on each side, with the cavalry on the flanks where they could best maneuver. Theoretically, in such battles, the cavalry would come to grips while the infantry was still moving up, and thus resolve their part of the battle first Infantry Infantry Infantry Cavalry Cavalry Cavalry Cavalry Infantry Infantry Infantry
16. At Edgehill, the first major battle of the war in 1642,there were about 14,000 men on each side, with the cavalry on the flanks where they could best maneuver. Theoretically, in such battles, the cavalry would come to grips while the infantry was still moving up, and thus resolve their part of the battle first. Whichever cavalry won, was supposed to finish the battle by attacking the enemy infantry on their exposed flanks. Cavalry Cavalry Cavalry Infantry Infantry Infantry Cavalry Infantry Infantry Infantry
17. However, Edgehill assumed the all too familiar pattern where the victorious cavalry (in this case the Royalist Cavaliers led by Rupert) found it more appealing to loot the Roundheads’ undefended camp than get their hands dirty from fighting lowly infantry. What they didn’t see were two Roundhead cavalry regiments in reserve who did their job of attacking the Royalist infantry in the flank.
18. However, Edgehill assumed the all too familiar pattern where the victorious cavalry (in this case the Royalist Cavaliers led by Rupert) found it more appealing to loot the Roundheads’ undefended camp than get their hands dirty from fighting lowly infantry. What they didn’t see were two Roundhead cavalry regiments in reserve who did their job of attacking the Royalist infantry in the flank. Thus the day’s fighting ended in an draw, probably because both sides ran out of gunpowder (something neither side would openly admit).
19. However, Edgehill assumed the all too familiar pattern where the victorious cavalry (in this case the Royalist Cavaliers led by Rupert) found it more appealing to loot the Roundheads’ undefended camp than get their hands dirty from fighting lowly infantry. What they didn’t see were two Roundhead cavalry regiments in reserve who did their job of attacking the Royalist infantry in the flank. Thus the day’s fighting ended in an draw, probably because both sides ran out of gunpowder (something neither side would openly admit). Most likely shortages of powder cut short several battles in the English Civil War.
20. The Puritans could claim one success at Edgehill: the capture of the King’s flag.
21. The two armies spent the next day staring at each other, neither with the stomach to resume the fight. Edgehill did wake up many, especially the rank and file, to the awful realities of war.
22. The two armies spent the next day staring at each other, neither with the stomach to resume the fight. Edgehill did wake up many, especially the rank and file, to the awful realities of war. Part of the tragedy of civil war is that it often divides families. At Edgehill there were two fathers on the king’s side fighting against their two sons on the other side.
23. Although a draw, Rupert's subsequent move on London put Parliament into a panic, causing it to try to negotiate with Charles, but the king refused. Therefore, Parliament had London fortified with eighteen miles of packed-earth fortifications, no trace of which remains.
24. Stalemate (1643-4)
25. After Edgehill, the war turned into a series of localized conflicts, largely because the trained banks refused to leave their home counties to fight a broader war. Skirmishes and sieges of manor houses became the most common type of fighting.
26. With their men gone to war, women often had to lead the local defense. For example, Lady Harley of Brampton organized a garrison and led its defense for 6 weeks, while a certain Mrs. Purefoy, with only 4 men, 3 maids, and her daughters shot 3 captains and 15 troopers before Prince Rupert finally took the place. Impressed by Mrs. Purefoy’s courage, Rupert showed the defenders rare mercy. Below: Lady Arundel defending Wardour Castle.
27. By 1644 both sides were exhausted and desperately seeking outside help. With France still preoccupied with the Thirty Years War and the accession of the 4-year old Louis XIV to the French throne in 1643, Charles could expect little help from France.
28. By 1644 both sides were exhausted and desperately seeking outside help. With France still preoccupied with the Thirty Years War and the accession of the 4-year old Louis XIV to the French throne in 1643, Charles could expect little help from France. In addition to the army left over from the Irish revolt in 1640, the Irish sent the king 17,000 more troops. However, in order to avoid Parliament’s navy, they arrived piecemeal and then were parceled out among various Royalist armies. Complicating matters was the fact that many of these soldiers were English Protestants who mutinied against the king and/or deserted to the other side.
29. Parliament had an easier time getting 22,000 Scots after Pym's treaty gave them religious concessions, promising, among other things, to make the Church of England a Presbyterian church on the Scottish model. While Pym’s treaty, would provide the means to win the war now, it also laid the seeds of dissension between Presbyterians and Independents after the war.
30. Stretching the sinews of war In 1642 when the war started, motivated recruits were relatively easy to get. But by 1643 & 1644 many of the initial recruits were dead or gone and were hard to replace with volunteers
31. Stretching the sinews of war In 1642 when the war started, motivated recruits were relatively easy to get. But by 1643 & 1644 many of the initial recruits were dead or gone and were hard to replace with volunteers. Therefore, both sides resorted to conscription, at first drafting the dregs of society. However, they typically deserted and plundered the countryside, causing peasants to form vigilante bands of "clubmen" who attacked any soldiers they caught. Since the trained bands resisted leaving their home counties, Parliament started to draft taxpayers, making the war very unpopular.
32. Part of the problem was the lack of pay. In lieu of money Parliament promised to give its veterans Irish lands. Despite its superior resources, Parliament had as much trouble feeding, clothing, and equipping its army as did the king, who set up factories for clothes and shoes, while getting arms and powder from overseas.
33. Getting gunpowder was especially a problem, in particular its active ingredient, saltpeter or potassium nitrate, which was a bi-product of bird droppings or human urine. Previously, royal monopolists had the right to enter any man's premises and dig in his henhouses, dovecotes, or privies. Although this caused widespread resentment, Parliament resorted to similar methods during the civil war.
34. Getting gunpowder was especially a problem, in particular its active ingredient, saltpeter or potassium nitrate, which was a bi-product of bird droppings or human urine. Previously, royal monopolists had the right to enter any man's premises and dig in his henhouses, dovecotes, or privies. Although this caused widespread resentment, Parliament resorted to similar methods during the civil war. Another extremely unpopular practice by both sides was quartering troops in people’s homes. All of this shows that both sides' war efforts were approaching a crisis.
35. The Rise of Oliver Cromwell
36. As with any famous person in history, especially those with humble origins, there are numerous apocryphal stories about Cromwell. In one legend he was stolen from the cradle by a monkey, and in another he gave baby Charles a bloody nose over a toy when the royal family was visiting Cromwell's grandfather.
37. As with any famous person in history, especially those with humble origins, there are numerous apocryphal stories about Cromwell. In one legend he was stolen from the cradle by a monkey, and in another he gave baby Charles a bloody nose over a toy when the royal family was visiting Cromwell's grandfather. Born in 1599, he was virtually unknown before the Civil War, an obscure country gentleman who married a rich leather merchant’s daughter, Elizabeth Bourchier, and struggled to raise a family of six children on a modest estate. In 1631, he had to sell his estate and to rent a farm.
38. He first attended Parliament in 1628, the year of the Petition of Right. His first recorded speech was in defense of his old teacher who had been reprimanded for criticizing the “popery” of the Church of England. (It was quite typical for such local issues to take up Parliament’s time.)
39. He first attended Parliament in 1628, the year of the Petition of Right. His first recorded speech was in defense of his old teacher who had been reprimanded for criticizing the “popery” of the Church of England. (It was quite typical for such local issues to take up Parliament’s time.) Cromwell was also involved in local politics, in particular leading a fight against the Earl of Bedford who was enclosing and draining some fenlands to create more farmland, but less hunting & fowling for the poor. Because of this Cromwell was called "Lord of the Fens”.
40. He first attended Parliament in 1628, the year of the Petition of Right. His first recorded speech was in defense of his old teacher who had been reprimanded for criticizing the “popery” of the Church of England. (It was quite typical for such local issues to take up Parliament’s time.) Cromwell was also involved in local politics, in particular leading a fight against the Earl of Bedford who was enclosing and draining some fenlands to create more farmland, but less hunting & fowling for the poor. Because of this Cromwell was called "Lord of the Fens". In November 1640 he went back to Parliament along with 18 of his kinsmen, so, he was present at the crisis that led to the outbreak of civil war. While becoming more actively involved, he was by no means a major player yet.
41. After Edgehill (1642) Cromwell went home and formed a cavalry regiment, later called Old Ironsides by Prince Rupert. Its members were highly trained and inspired with a religious fervor that some thought bordered on fanaticism. However, religious they may or may not have been, they were effective in much the same way the Union cavalry could finally stand up to Confederate cavalry two years into the American Civil War.
42. After Edgehill (1642) Cromwell went home and formed a cavalry regiment, later called Old Ironsides by Prince Rupert. Its members were highly trained and inspired with a religious fervor that some thought bordered on fanaticism. However, religious they may or may not have been, they were effective in much the same way the Union cavalry could finally stand up to Confederate cavalry two years into the American Civil War. By 1644, Cromwell was calling for more decisive action from his superior officers whom he could publicly criticize , since he was a member of Parliament . He also supported the Self-Denying Ordinance where a member of Parliament couldn't also be an officer in the army. At the same time, all Peers were removed from commands since they couldn't renounce their hereditary titles and positions in the House of Lords, while members in the House of Commons could resign from Parliament and keep their commands, which is what Cromwell did.
43. "God made them as stubble to our swords.” The Battle of Marston Moor (July 2, 1644)
44. On July 2nd, 1644 a Parliamentary army of 27,000 troops met an army of 17,000 Cavaliers under Prince Rupert. The Royalists broke for supper at 6PM, thinking it was too late to fight. The Roundheads, however, weren’t hungry and attacked. Cromwell’s Ironsides drove Rupert’s cavalry back, Cromwell himself being wounded in the neck.
45. Meanwhile, on the other flank, the Royalist cavalry, using the Swedish tactic of mixing 500 musketeers in with 2,000 cavalry, drove off the Parliamentary cavalry. True to form, the Cavaliers broke ranks to loot the enemy camp. Having driven off Rupert, Cromwell and Ironsides swung across the field and hit the Royalist infantry in the rear. One Royalist regiment, known as Newcastle’s lambs or the Whitecoats for their undyed woolen coats, had vowed to fight to victory or until their coats were stained red with their own blood. They fought and died to the last man.
46. Much like Gettysburg did in the American Civil War, Marston Moor, marked the turning point in the English Civil War. There was still plenty of hard fighting and bloodshed left, but the tide had definitely turned.
47. Among those killed at Marston Moor was Rupert’s dog, Boy, whom he apparently forgot to tie up before the battle. Puritans, who hated Rupert, rejoiced at Boy’s death, claiming the dog had been a witch’s familiar.
48. In a final push toward victory, Parliament created the New Model Army of 14,000 infantry, 6000 cavalry, and 1,000 dragoons, mobile musketeers who traveled on horseback but fought largely on foot. Generally, one man in four would hold the horses while the others formed a skirmish line, firing a few volleys to slow the progress of the enemy and then riding off.
49. The new general, Thomas Fairfax, was slight, self-effacing, and quiet, but of iron will. He demanded iron discipline but also regular pay for his men, which encouraged experienced veterans to re-enlist. The New Model Army generated a myth of being highly dedicated and religious men, since it was largely modeled on Cromwell’s regiment, Ironsides. In reality it was a professional army motivated more by regular pay than religious or political conviction. In fact, Parliament resorted to forcible conscription, even kidnapping men off London streets in broad daylight. By the 1650's the New Model Army would probably be the best army in Europe.
50. Dutch and Swedish influence can be seen in the army’s regular equipment, uniforms (in England’s case red), and organization. At first, it had one pikeman for every two musketeers, until flintlock muskets with baynetsbecame standard issue for all in 1685. Each cavalry trooper carried a sword, two pistols, a helmet, and a breast and backplate. Around 1650, the helmet and armor were replaced by a hat and coat of buffalo hide.
51. Following the lead of other countries a modern officer corps and chain of command were put in place. Similarly, the artillery was also put on a firm basis with standard organization.
52. The New Model Army proved its worth in 1645 by crushing Charles at Naseby. As usual, Rupert pursued too far while Cromwell came round and hit the Royalist infantry in the rear to win the battle. Next year, Charles surrendered to the Scots, hoping to split the victors.
53. More bickering and a second civil war (l645-1648)
54. Charles was right in assuming he could split the victors, and the reasons for that split were largely the same reasons that had first led to civil war: money, religion, and government. The civil war, like most wars, had been expensive, and Parliament did not have the money to pay the New Model Army it had raised.
55. Charles was right in assuming he could split the victors, and the reasons for that split were largely the same reasons that had first led to civil war: money, religion, and government. The civil war, like most wars, had been expensive, and Parliament did not have the money to pay the New Model Army it had raised. It tried to dismiss the army, promising to repay it later, which did not set too well with the troops, who refused to disband. Instead, they set up a General Council of the Army composed of generals, officers, and "agitators", elected from the rank and file, took custody of the king, occupied London, and forced 11 parliamentary leaders out of the House of Commons.
56. Religion was another point of controversy between Parliament and army. Parliament wanted a state run, or Presbyterian, church, while most of the army, including Cromwell, wanted independent churches with freedom of religion. This was what many of them had fought for, and they were not about to give it up to Parliament.
57. Finally, there was the issue of what sort of government to establish. Parliament and most army officers, including Cromwell, felt, as property owners, that they were most fit to rule, since they had to learn to be responsible for their property. The rank and file in the army pushed for a much more radical and democratic government, claiming they had fought for and earned equal rights.
58. Finally, there was the issue of what sort of government to establish. Parliament and most army officers, including Cromwell, felt, as property owners, that they were most fit to rule, since they had to learn to be responsible for their property. The rank and file in the army pushed for a much more radical and democratic government, claiming they had fought for and earned equal rights. The most radical of these, the Levelers, wanted the vote for all men, a bill of rights, and the abolition of the monarchy and House of Lords. A meeting of the General Council of the Army led to a deadlock between the officers and common troops. Cromwell ended the discussion and ordered the agitators back to their regiments, having one of them shot in order to convince the others to submit.
59. When the Presbyterian majority in Parliament moved to impose their style of church, there was widespread dissent among the troops who had fought for religious freedom. A multitude of pamphlets, sermons, and discussions to stir up new ideas led some preachers to expand religious equality to political and social equality as well.
60. When the Presbyterian majority in Parliament moved to impose their style of church, there was widespread dissent among the troops who had fought for religious freedom. A multitude of pamphlets, sermons, and discussions to stir up new ideas led some preachers to expand religious equality to political and social equality as well. As a result, the army split into two groups of Independents: those, such as Cromwell and many army officers, with a solely religious agenda, and those, known as the Levellers and led by John Lilburne (left), combining religious and political agendas. A few, probably influenced by the pacifist Quakers who let women preach, even advocated equal rights for women.
61. When the Presbyterian majority in Parliament moved to impose their style of church, there was widespread dissent among the troops who had fought for religious freedom. A multitude of pamphlets, sermons, and discussions to stir up new ideas led some preachers to expand religious equality to political and social equality as well. As a result, the army split into two groups of Independents: those, such as Cromwell and many army officers, with a solely religious agenda, and those, known as the Levellers and led by John Lilburne (left), combining religious and political agendas. A few, probably influenced by the pacifist Quakers who let women preach, even advocated equal rights for women. New elections in 1645-6 led to a more vocal group of Independents in Parliament, although Presbyterians still held the majority.
62. Caught in the middle of this was Cromwell, who favored freedom of conscience, but also had conservative political and social views that clashed with the more radical Levellers. Seeing monarchy, although not divine right of kings, as a reasonable form of government, he entered into negotiations with the king, which lost him and his followers the confidence of the rank and file troops, who started calling the officers Grandees (i.e. nobles).
63. At this point, events forced army and Parliament to reunite, because Charles had escaped and raised the Scots and English royalists in revolt with promises of establishing a Scottish style Presbyterian Church if he regained his throne.
64. At this point, events forced army and Parliament to reunite, because Charles had escaped and raised the Scots and English royalists in revolt with promises of establishing a Scottish style Presbyterian Church if he regained his throne. This second civil war was a short and decisive affair. Cromwell, leading the New Model Army, annihilated any opposing Scottish and royalist forces in quick succession.
65. During the Second Civil War the New Model Army, functioned like a well-oiled machine under Cromwell’s decisive and brilliant leadership. Although sometimes outnumbered 2:1, Cromwell made more effective use of his troops to defeat the Royalist forces in battles at Preston, Warwick, Uttoxeter, and Dunbar.
66. However, the king’s son, Charles, escaped, supposedly eluding Cromwell’s men by hiding in an oak tree. He joined his Catholic mother and siblings in France where he would remain in exile until 1661 when Parliament summoned him back to England to take the throne as Charles II.
67. Cromwell's Dictatorship (1649-60)
68. Once this war was over, Cromwell moved just as decisively to resolve the problems in London
69. Once this war was over, Cromwell moved just as decisively to resolve the problems in London. First, there was Parliament, which the army especially disliked, since some Parliamentary members had entered into negotiations with Charles to restore the monarchy. This led to Pride's Purge, named after a Colonel Pride who used the army to expel some 100 Presbyterian members. This left a "Rump Parliament" of about 60 members who were more agreeable, or at least submissive, to the will of Cromwell and the army.
70. Charles’ trial Next came the king, who was tried for treason and executed on January 30, 1649. Bishops and the House of Lords were abolished and the religious independents prevailed.
71. Charles’ trial Next came the king, who was tried for treason and executed on January 30, 1649. Bishops and the House of Lords were abolished and the religious independents prevailed. Charles’ trial by Parliament, much like the conciliar movement that solved the Great Schism in the early 1400s, raised a very real legal question. As the king constantly pointed out, if he indeed was the head of state and appointed by God, who on earth had the authority to try him?
72. Charles’ trial Next came the king, who was tried for treason and executed on January 30, 1649. Bishops and the House of Lords were abolished and the religious independents prevailed. Charles’ trial by Parliament, much like the conciliar movement that solved the Great Schism in the early 1400s, raised a very real legal question. As the king constantly pointed out, if he indeed was the head of state and appointed by God, who on earth had the authority to try him? This was the crux of his defense, not even recognizing the authority of the court to try him, and thus refusing to cooperate with the proceedings.
73. Charles’ trial Next came the king, who was tried for treason and executed on January 30, 1649. Bishops and the House of Lords were abolished and the religious independents prevailed. Charles’ trial by Parliament, much like the conciliar movement that solved the Great Schism in the early 1400s, raised a very real legal question. As the king constantly pointed out, if he indeed was the head of state and appointed by God, who on earth had the authority to try him? This was the crux of his defense, not even recognizing the authority of the court to try him, and thus refusing to cooperate with the proceedings. This attitude also largely sealed his fate.
74. “We shall cut off the king’s head and the crown with it.” --Oliver Cromwell Cromwell, who was the third to sign Charles I’s death warrant (belowj), did a bit of arm-twisting to pressure other members of Parliament to sign as well. Still only 59 of 135 Members of Parliament signed it, maybe because the other 75 members had been purged.
75. “I am a martyr of the people.” --Charles I at his execution Charles I’s execution (1/30/1649) was much less popular than Cromwell and the radical Puritans had anticipated.
76. “I am a martyr of the people.” --Charles I at his execution Charles I’s execution (1/30/1649) was much less popular than Cromwell and the radical Puritans had anticipated. Meanwhile, another anti-royalist revolt, the Fronde, was raging in France, although ultimately with very different results from its English counterpart.
77. An English Sans Culottes? If the English Revolution had a radical element corresponding to the Sans Culottes in the French Revolution or the Soviets in the Russian Revolution, it would have been the army rank and file, more specifically the faction among them known as the Levellers.
78. An English Sans Culottes? If the English Revolution had a radical element corresponding to the Sans Culottes in the French Revolution or the Soviets in the Russian Revolution, it would have been the army rank and file, more specifically the faction among them known as the Levellers. Besides pushing for a more radical leveling of society, all three groups pushed for their respective monarchs’ execution. And in each case, that execution was shocking & unpopular with the general populace who couldn’t imagine society without a king. Soon pamphlets started appearing that, as Charles had foretold, portrayed him as a martyr of the people.
79. However, the democratic reforms that the Levelers and much of the army hoped for never materialized. Resulting mutinies and demonstrations were quickly put down and their leaders arrested.
80. However, the democratic reforms that the Levelers and much of the army hoped for never materialized. Resulting mutinies and demonstrations were quickly put down and their leaders arrested. At first, Cromwell ruled through the Rump Parliament and a government known as the Commonwealth (1649-53). However, frustrated by what he saw as Parliament's lack of fervor for his type of rule, he established a more blatant dictatorship known as the Protectorate with himself as Lord Protector.
81. Cromwell's government Cromwell did not see himself as a political revolutionary and instead strove for normalcy in government. He made continuous efforts to maintain the rule of law through Parliament, but felt constantly frustrated by its unwillingness or inability to act decisively on crucial matters, even referring to Parliament as more of a prayer meeting than a government. As a result, he constantly felt compelled to tighten his grip on power to make things run more smoothly.
82. For example, he faced the climax of the crisis with the Levellers, whose hopes for a democratic government were raised by the king’s execution. When about 1,000 of them rose up to push for a more broadly based democracy, Cromwell dealt ruthlessly and effectively with them by arresting and executing eleven of their leaders.
83. The Commonwealth (1649-53) The Commonwealth (1649-53), with the “Rump” Parliament as the main governing body, was Cromwell’s first attempt at establishing constitutional government. The next year he obliged every freeman over 18 to take an oath of loyalty to the Commonwealth, which was described as the “supreme authority of the nation...without any king, or House of Lords".
84. However, in April 1653 Cromwell, disgusted with the Rump's lack of fervor, brought in a squad of musketeers and dismissed it after a fiery speech. This led to a new, more radical Parliament, known as the Barebones Parliament (named after a popular preacher, Praise-GodBarbon (AKA Barebones, left). However, moderates in this body met separately and dissolved it, turning all power over to Cromwell.
85. However, in April 1653 Cromwell, disgusted with the Rump's lack of fervor, brought in a squad of musketeers and dismissed it after a fiery speech. This led to a new, more radical Parliament, known as the Barebones Parliament (named after a popular preacher, Praise-GodBarbon (AKA Barebones, left). However, moderates in this body met separately and dissolved it, turning all power over to Cromwell. Not to be outdone by his father, Praise-God named his son Nicholas Unless-Jesus-Christ-Had-Died-For-Thee-Thou-Hadst-Been-Damned Barbon, who seems to have pioneered fire insurance, probably after the Great Fire of London in 1666.
86. The Protectorate (1653-8) The Protectorate (1653-8) was Cromwell’s next government. It had a written constitution, the Instrument of Government, but, for all intents and purposes, it was a military dictatorship under Cromwell as Lord Protector. In addition to a Secret Service, Cromwell’s secretary of state, John Thurloe started the British civil service, which carried on from ruler to the next, providing the realm with a new level of stability.
87. Cromwell's court at Whitehall Palace In an effort to look legitimate and in accordance with what he felt his position demanded, Cromwell ran a very formal court at Whitehall Palace. Even his former comrades had to bare their heads and address him as Your Highness. There were numerous concerts there, typically to entertain foreign dignitaries. Representatives from Venice and the Dutch Republic both described Cromwell’s court at Whitehall as one of the most formal courts in Europe.
88. Cromwell’s Foreign Policy Outside of England, Cromwell faced a war with Scotland, which he conquered and ruled with some moderation since the Scots were fellow Protestants. Catholic Ireland, another enemy, was not so lucky. Cromwell's conquest of Ireland was methodical and brutal, leaving wounds that still have not healed today. Like it or not, Scotland and Ireland were incorporated into the greater Commonwealth of Britain, something no English king had been able to do. Cromwell also had an aggressive foreign policy outside of Britain, fighting successful wars against the Dutch and Spanish and making England a military and naval power to be reckoned with.
89. A Brief History of Ireland
90. The Normans invaded Ireland in 1169, gradually extending their control over the following centuries. For most of the Middle Ages Ireland was ruled as a separate kingdom under the British Crown.
91. By 1300, the area controlled by the Anglo Normans had reached its greatest extent.
92. However, by 1450, the Irish had regained control over much of their land.
93. In the 1500s, the English started to regain control of parts of Ireland. In 1603 the defeat of the Irish in Ulster gave Britain complete control of Ireland.
94. In the 1500s, the English started to regain control of parts of Ireland. In 1603 the defeat of the Irish in Ulster gave Britain complete control of Ireland. Unfortunately, the Protestant Reformation added a new and volatile element to the struggle: religion. Now it wasn’t just a struggle about land. It was a struggle about God.
95. In the 1500s, the English started to regain control of parts of Ireland. In 1603 the defeat of the Irish in Ulster gave Britain complete control of Ireland. Unfortunately, the Protestant Reformation added a new and volatile element to the struggle: religion. Now it wasn’t just a struggle over land. It was a struggle over God. In 1641, the Catholic Irish rebelled against their Protestant English masters.
96. Anti Irish-Catholic propaganda in 1641, showing supposed Irish atrocities committed against English and Irish Protestants in Ireland.
97. Anglo-Irish Protestants prepare defenses for Drogheda (1641) vs. Irish rebels as they wait for help from England. The English Civil Wars delayed English efforts to respond to the uprising.
98. However, in 1649, Cromwell landed in Ireland to quell the revolt. His bombardment and storming of Drogheda was one of the most notorious of his acts.
99. With his troops wavering, Cromwell personally led the assault on the gates of the city.
100. With his troops wavering, Cromwell personally leads the assault on the gates of the city. When it fell, all soldiers, priests, and a number of civilians were massacred.
101. With his troops wavering, Cromwell personally leads the assault on the gates of the city. When it fell, all soldiers, priests, and a number of civilians were massacred. "I wish that all honest hearts may give the glory of this to God, to whom indeed the praise of thy mercy belongs."--Cromwell
102. Cromwell hoped one massacre could intimidate the Irish into submission.
103. Cromwell hoped 1 massacre could intimidate the Irish into submission. It didn't.
104. Cromwell hoped 1 massacre could intimidate the Irish into submission. It didn't. 1500 more were massacred when Wexford was taken.
105. Cromwell hoped 1 massacre could intimidate the Irish into submission. It didn't. 1500 more were massacred when Wexford was taken. Other towns offering resistance suffered the same fate.
106. Cromwell hoped 1 massacre could intimidate the Irish into submission. It didn't. 1500 more were massacred when Wexford was taken. Other towns offering resistance suffered the same fate. When Cromwell had to leave Ireland to take care of Scotland, his policy of massacres was abandoned.
107. Cromwell hoped 1 massacre could intimidate the Irish into submission. It didn't. 1500 more were massacred when Wexford was taken. Other towns offering resistance suffered the same fate. When Cromwell had to leave Ireland to take care of Scotland, his policy of massacres was abandoned. However, another policy that would prove in the long run more destructive to the Irish people was now implemented: land confiscations.
108. Because of the lack of cash to pay his troops at the end of the war, Cromwell confiscated land and gave it to his troops in lieu of money. Any Irish unable to prove loyalty to the Commonwealth had their property confiscated. Dispossessed landowners were then given poor quality land in Connaught, thus the Irish expression “To Hell or Connaught.”
109. Because of the lack of cash to pay his troops at the end of the war, Cromwell confiscated land and gave it to his troops in lieu of money. Any Irish unable to prove loyalty to the Commonwealth had their property confiscated. Dispossessed landowners were then given poor quality land in Connaught, thus the Irish expression “To Hell or Connaught.” To ensure continuing control over the troublesome northern province of Ulster, land was confiscated and given to Scottish farmers.
110. Because of the lack of cash to pay his troops at the end of the war, Cromwell confiscated land and gave it to his troops in lieu of money. Any Irish unable to prove loyalty to the Commonwealth had their property confiscated. Dispossessed landowners were then given poor quality land in Connaught, thus the Irish expression “To Hell or Connaught.” To ensure continuing control over the troublesome northern province of Ulster, land was confiscated and given to Scottish farmers. This was the source of much of the religious strife still afflicting Northern Ireland today.
111. An act from 1692 encouraging Protestants to settle in Ireland, thus displacing more native Irish. The English seized 2/3 of Irish land for themselves.
112. An act from 1692 encouraging Protestants to settle in Ireland, thus displacing more native Irish. The English seized 2/3 of Irish land for themselves. As a result, starvation and disease killed an estimated 50% of the Irish population by 1692.
113. An act from 1692 encouraging Protestants to settle in Ireland, thus displacing more native Irish. The English seized 2/3 of Irish land for themselves. As a result, starvation and disease killed an estimated 50% of the Irish population by 1692. According to one traveler, "...a man might travel 20 or 30 miles and not see a living creature."
114. Cromwell’s religious policies outlawing Catholicism were no less disruptive.
115. Cromwell’s religious policies outlawing Catholicism were no less disruptive. Priests were ordered out of the country in 20 days.
116. Cromwell’s religious policies outlawing Catholicism were no less disruptive. Priests were ordered out of the country in 20 days. Anyone harboring a priest could be executed, although this was not strictly enforced after the war.
117. Cromwell’s religious policies outlawing Catholicism were no less disruptive. Priests were ordered out of the country in 20 days. Anyone harboring a priest could be executed, although this was not strictly enforced after the war. Magistrates could even take Irish children & ship them to England for a proper Protestant education.
118. The long-term results for Ireland were also devastating. In the 1840s, the Potato famine hit Ireland. Although English landlords, who controlled the best 2/3 of land in Ireland, had extra food, they exported it to England while maybe a million Irish starved to death.
119. The long-term results for Ireland were also devastating. In the 1840s, the Potato famine hit Ireland. Although English landlords, who controlled the best 2/3 of land in Ireland, had extra food, they exported it to England while maybe a million Irish starved to death. Outrage over their plight would eventually lead to the Irish Revolution in 1916.
120. A contemporary song by the group, the Pogues, reflects the bitterness still found in Ireland: “A curse upon you Oliver Cromwell You who raped our Motherland I hope you’re rotting down in hell For the horrors that you sent To our misfortunate forefathers Whom you robbed of their birthright ‘To hell or Connaught’ may you burn in hell tonight “
121. The First Anglo-Dutch War In 1651, Cromwell passed the Navigation Act, which said imports to England had to come either on English ships or ships from the countries where the goods were made. This was an obvious blow against the Dutch who profited greatly from the carrying trade. The result was the First Anglo-Dutch War.
122. The First Anglo-Dutch War In 1651, Cromwell passed the Navigation Act, which said imports to England had to come either on English ships or ships from the countries where the goods were made. This was an obvious blow against the Dutch who profited greatly from the carrying trade. The result was the First Anglo-Dutch War. Since the Dutch before now had concentrated on trade, they didn’t have as powerful navy as Britain’s, and did poorly in this war. However, in the next two Anglo-Dutch wars they would more than hold their own by building large warships and adopting the English tactic of fighting in one long line to make best use of the broadsides from their cannons.
123. In 1653, the two countries’ fleets of 120 ships each met in a bloody and indecisive battle at Scheveningen. Although a tactical draw, it did break the British blockade of Holland and led to peace.
124. In 1653, the two countries’ fleets of 120 ships each met in a bloody and indecisive battle at Scheveningen. Although a tactical draw, it did break the British blockade of Holland and led to peace. From Cromwell’s point of view, this ensured that Johan de Witte’s party remained in power to prevent the young William III of Orange, Charles II’s nephew, from taking over and trying to restore his uncle to the throne of England. Ironically, it would be William who would over throw the Stuart monarchy and seize the throne in 1688 in the Glorious Revolution.
125. Life in Cromwell’s England Inside England, people felt Cromwell's heavy hand as well. His wars, standing army of 30,000 men, and navy required taxes three times higher than any which James I and Charles I had ever imposed. Churches were more locally controlled, but people were expected to live good religious lives.
126. Life in Cromwell’s England Inside England, people felt Cromwell's heavy hand as well. His wars, standing army of 30,000 men, and navy required taxes three times higher than any which James I and Charles I had ever imposed. Churches were more locally controlled, but people were expected to live good religious lives. Theaters, taverns, and racetracks were all closed down. People dressed in somber colors to reflect the mood of the ruling regime. Life under Cromwell seemed like Calvinist Geneva, except on a much grander scale.
127. Although Cromwell outlawed such things as dancing, cards, theatres, and sports, Catholics were allowed to worship in the privacy of their homes.
128. Although Cromwell outlawed such things as dancing, cards, theatres, and sports, Catholics were allowed to worship in the privacy of their homes. Surprisingly, he also invited the Jews, exiled since the 1200s, to return to England. Rather than religious tolerance, inspiring this was the somber religious belief that for the End of Days to occur as predicted in Revelations, the Jews had to return to their homeland. While most people figured that homeland was Palestine, Cromwell, maybe just to play it safe, thought it might be England, at least for any Jews who had lived there previously.
129. Although Cromwell outlawed such things as dancing, cards, theatres, and sports, Catholics were allowed to worship in the privacy of their homes. Surprisingly, he also invited the Jews, exiled since the 1200s, to return to England. Rather than religious tolerance, inspiring this was the somber religious belief that for the End of Days to occur as predicted in Revelations, the Jews had to return to their homeland. While most people figured that homeland was Palestine, Cromwell, maybe just to play it safe, thought it might be England, at least for any Jews who had lived there previously. Similarly, many modern fundamentalist Christians have supported Israel for the same reason.
130. Rather than put up with Cromwell’s rule, many cavalier families, such as the Washingtons, Madisons, and Monroes, left England for the American colonies, especially Virginia, much like the Puritans had fled to New England from royal repression thirty years earlier. These two ways of life, the aristocratic nobles in the South and the capitalist Puritans in the North, would take root and clash with one another two centuries later. Thus the American Civil War was largely an extension of the English Revolution.
131. Cromwell’s later rule As people grew increasingly tired and resentful of Cromwell’s dictatorship, resistance increased, which caused Cromwell to tighten up even more, leading to more resistance and resentment, and so on.
132. Cromwell’s later rule As people grew increasingly tired and resentful of Cromwell’s dictatorship, resistance increased, which caused Cromwell to tighten up even more, leading to more resistance and resentment, and so on. Parliament, which still had the power to grant taxes, dragged its feet to give him those taxes, so he dismissed three times in five years.
133. Cromwell’s later rule As people grew increasingly tired and resentful of Cromwell’s dictatorship, resistance increased, which caused Cromwell to tighten up even more, leading to more resistance and resentment, and so on. Parliament, which still had the power to grant taxes, dragged its feet to give him those taxes, so he dismissed three times in five years. Left: Anti-Cromwell propaganda portraying him as the Anti-Christ
134. Outside of Parliament, resistance might take the form of non-cooperation or sabotage. Secretly printed pamphlets attacking Cromwell multiplied. Plots and rising by Levelers and other religious sects led to curtailing religious liberties. Several judges resigned their posts to protest Cromwell’s policies.
135. Although Cromwell did refuse an offer to take the crown, probably realizing its unpopularity with the army in particular, he did increase his power in other ways. In 1657 he passed the Humble Petition and Advice, giving him the power to nominate a successor, much like a king would do.
136. Although Cromwell did refuse an offer to take the crown, probably realizing its unpopularity with the army in particular, he did increase his power in other ways. In 1657 he passed the Humble Petition and Advice, giving him the power to nominate a successor, much like a king would do. The next year he selected some members of Parliament to form a new Upper or Other House, which many saw as a revival of the House of Lords. That same year, reacting to further resistance, he dismissed Parliament for the third time in five years.
137. Although Cromwell did refuse an offer to take the crown, probably realizing its unpopularity with the army in particular, he did increase his power in other ways. In 1657 he passed the Humble Petition and Advice, giving him the power to nominate a successor, much like a king would do. The next year he selected some members of Parliament to form a new Upper or Other House, which many saw as a revival of the House of Lords. That same year, reacting to further resistance, he dismissed Parliament for the third time in five years. Below: A British gold crown from 1658 with Cromwell’ head crowned with a laurel wreath on the front. Cromwell also mimicked royalty by maintaining a lavish court and having himself treated as a virtual king.
138. Oliver Cromwell died on September 3, 1658. He was certainly one of the greatest figures in English history, although his motives and the nature of his greatness are still disputed by historians.
139. Oliver Cromwell died on September 3, 1658. He was certainly one of the greatest figures in English history, although his motives and the nature of his greatness are still disputed by historians. However, no one of his caliber emerged to take firm control of England after him. His son Richard tried, failed, and resigned. This led to various generals wrangling over power, but people in general were tired of the strict Puritan rule. They also longed for a king, since that was the traditional ruler for a country. Finally, a certain General Monk led the army in Scotland to London, restored the Long Parliament, which asked Charles II, Charles I's son who had escaped to France, to come back as the king.
140. Oliver Cromwell died on September 3, 1658. He was certainly one of the greatest figures in English history, although his motives and the nature of his greatness are still disputed by historians. However, no one of his caliber emerged to take firm control of England after him. His son Richard tried, failed, and resigned. This led to various generals wrangling over power, but people in general were tired of the strict Puritan rule. They also longed for a king, since that was the traditional ruler for a country. Finally, a certain General Monk led the army in Scotland to London, restored the Long Parliament, which asked Charles II, Charles I's son who had escaped to France, to come back as the king. England's experiment in government without a king was about to end.
141. Oliver Cromwell died on September 3, 1658. He was certainly one of the greatest figures in English history, although his motives and the nature of his greatness are still disputed by historians. However, no one of his caliber emerged to take firm control of England after him. His son Richard tried, failed, and resigned. This led to various generals wrangling over power, but people in general were tired of the strict Puritan rule. They also longed for a king, since that was the traditional ruler for a country. Finally, a certain General Monk led the army in Scotland to London, restored the Long Parliament, which asked Charles II, Charles I's son who had escaped to France, to come back as the king. England's experiment in government without a king was about to end. Three years after his death, a mob dug up Cromwell’s body and hanged it from a gallows.
142. Oliver Cromwell died on September 3, 1658. He was certainly one of the greatest figures in English history, although his motives and the nature of his greatness are still disputed by historians. However, no one of his caliber emerged to take firm control of England after him. His son Richard tried, failed, and resigned. This led to various generals wrangling over power, but people in general were tired of the strict Puritan rule. They also longed for a king, since that was the traditional ruler for a country. Finally, a certain General Monk led the army in Scotland to London, restored the Long Parliament, which asked Charles II, Charles I's son who had escaped to France, to come back as the king. England's experiment in government without a king was about to end. Three years after his death, a mob dug up Cromwell’s body and hanged it from a gallows. Left: Cromwell’s death mask